README.md

Nix - A One Pager
=================

[Nix](https://nixos.org/nix/), the package manager, is built on and with Nix,
the language. This page serves as a fast intro to most of the (small) language.

Unless otherwise specified, the word "Nix" refers only to the language below.

Please file an issue if something in here confuses you or you think something
important is missing.

If you have Nix installed, you can try the examples below by running `nix repl`
and entering code snippets there.

<!-- markdown-toc start - Don't edit this section. Run M-x markdown-toc-refresh-toc -->
**Table of Contents**

- [Overview](#overview)
- [Language constructs](#language-constructs)
    - [Primitives / literals](#primitives--literals)
    - [Operators](#operators)
        - [`//` (merge) operator](#-merge-operator)
    - [Variable bindings](#variable-bindings)
    - [Functions](#functions)
        - [Multiple arguments (currying)](#multiple-arguments-currying)
        - [Multiple arguments (attribute sets)](#multiple-arguments-attribute-sets)
    - [`if ... then ... else ...`](#if--then--else-)
    - [`inherit` keyword](#inherit-keyword)
    - [`with` statements](#with-statements)
    - [`import` / `NIX_PATH` / `<entry>`](#import--nix_path--entry)
    - [`or` expressions](#or-expressions)
- [Standard libraries](#standard-libraries)
    - [`builtins`](#builtins)
    - [`pkgs.lib`](#pkgslib)
    - [`pkgs` itself](#pkgs-itself)
- [Derivations](#derivations)
- [Nix Idioms](#nix-idioms)
    - [File lambdas](#file-lambdas)
    - [`callPackage`](#callpackage)
    - [Overrides / Overlays](#overrides--overlays)

<!-- markdown-toc end -->


# Overview

Nix is:

*   **purely functional**. It has no concept of sequential steps being executed,
    any dependency between operations is established by depending on *data* from
    previous operations.

    Any valid piece of Nix code is an *expression* that returns a value.

    Evaluating a Nix expression *yields a single data structure*, it does not
    execute a sequence of operations.

    Every Nix file evaluates to a *single expression*.
*   **lazy**. It will only evaluate expressions when their result is actually
    requested.

    For example, the builtin function `throw` causes evaluation to stop.
    Entering the following expression works fine however, because we never
    actually ask for the part of the structure that causes the `throw`.

    ```nix
    let attrs = { a = 15; b = builtins.throw "Oh no!"; };
    in "The value of 'a' is ${toString attrs.a}"
    ```
*   **purpose-built**. Nix only exists to be the language for Nix, the package
    manager. While people have occasionally used it for other use-cases, it is
    explicitly not a general-purpose language.

# Language constructs

This section describes the language constructs in Nix. It is a small language
and most of these should be self-explanatory.

## Primitives / literals

Nix has a handful of data types which can be represented literally in source
code, similar to many other languages.

```nix
# numbers
42
1.72394

# strings & paths
"hello"
./some-file.json

# strings support interpolation
"Hello ${name}"

# multi-line strings (common prefix whitespace is dropped)
''
first line
second line
''

# lists (note: no commas!)
[ 1 2 3 ]

# attribute sets (field access with dot syntax)
{ a = 15; b = "something else"; }

# recursive attribute sets (fields can reference each other)
rec { a = 15; b = a * 2; }
```

## Operators

Nix has several operators, most of which are unsurprising:

| Syntax                    | Description                                                                 |
|---------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| `+`, `-`, `*`, `/`        | Numerical operations                                                        |
| `+`                       | String concatenation                                                        |
| `++`                      | List concatenation                                                          |
| `==`                      | Equality                                                                    |
| `>`, `>=`, `<`, `<=`      | Ordering comparators                                                        |
| `&&`                      | Logical `AND`                                                               |
| <code>&vert;&vert;</code> | Logical `OR`                                                                |
| `e1 -> e2`                | Logical implication (i.e. <code>!e1 &vert;&vert; e2</code>)                 |
| `!`                       | Boolean negation                                                            |
| `set.attr`                | Access attribute `attr` in attribute set `set`                              |
| `set ? attribute`         | Test whether attribute set contains an attribute                            |
| `left // right`           | Merge `left` & `right` attribute sets, with the right set taking precedence |


### `//` (merge) operator

The `//`-operator is used pervasively in Nix code. You should familiarise
yourself with it, as it is likely also the least familiar one.

It merges the left and right attribute sets given to it:

```nix
{ a = 1; } // { b = 2; }

# yields { a = 1; b = 2; }
```

Values from the right side take precedence:

```nix
{ a = "left"; } // { a = "right"; }

# yields { a = "right"; }
```

The merge operator does *not* recursively merge attribute sets;

```nix
{ a = { b = 1; }; } // { a = { c = 2; }; }

# yields { a = { c = 2; }; }
```

Helper functions for recursive merging exist in the [`lib` library](#pkgslib).

## Variable bindings

Bindings in Nix are introduced locally via `let` expressions, which make some
variables available within a given scope.

For example:

```nix
let
  a = 15;
  b = 2;
in a * b

# yields 30
```

Variables are immutable. This means that after defining what `a` or `b` are, you
can not *modify* their value in the scope in which they are available.

You can nest `let`-expressions to shadow variables.

Variables are *not* available outside of the scope of the `let` expression.
There are no global variables.

## Functions

All functions in Nix are anonymous lambdas. This means that they are treated
just like data. Giving them names is accomplished by assigning them to
variables, or setting them as values in an attribute set (more on that below).

```
# simple function
# declaration is simply the argument followed by a colon
name: "Hello ${name}"
```

### Multiple arguments (currying)

Technically any Nix function can only accept **one argument**. Sometimes
however, a function needs multiple arguments. This is achieved in Nix via
[currying][], which means to create a function with one argument, that returns a
function with another argument, that returns ... and so on.

For example:

```nix
name: age: "${name} is ${toString age} years old"
```

An additional benefit of this approach is that you can pass one parameter to a
curried function, and receive back a function that you can re-use (similar to
partial application):

```nix
let
  multiply = a: b: a * b;
  doubleIt = multiply 2; # at this point we have passed in the value for 'a' and
                         # receive back another function that still expects 'b'
in
  doubleIt 15

# yields 30
```

### Multiple arguments (attribute sets)

Another way of specifying multiple arguments to a function in Nix is to make it
accept an attribute set, which enables multiple other features:

```nix
{ name, age }: "${name} is ${toString age} years old"
```

Using this method, we gain the ability to specify default arguments (so that
callers can omit them):

```nix
{ name, age ? 42 }: "${name} is ${toString age} years old"

```

Or in practice:

```nix
let greeter =  { name, age ? 42 }: "${name} is ${toString age} years old";
in greeter { name = "Slartibartfast"; }

# yields "Slartibartfast is 42 years old"
# (note: Slartibartfast is actually /significantly/ older)
```

Additionally we can introduce an ellipsis using `...`, meaning that we can
accept an attribute set as our input that contains more variables than are
needed for the function.

```nix
let greeter = { name, age, ... }: "${name} is ${toString age} years old";
    person = {
      name = "Slartibartfast";
      age = 42;
      # the 'email' attribute is not expected by the 'greeter' function ...
      email = "slartibartfast@magrath.ea";
    };
in greeter person # ... but the call works due to the ellipsis.
```

Nix also supports binding the whole set of passed in attributes to a
parameter using the `@` syntax:

```nix
let func = { name, age, ... }@args: builtins.attrNames args;
in func {
    name = "Slartibartfast";
    age = 42;
    email = "slartibartfast@magrath.ea";
}

# yields: [ "age" "email" "name" ]
```

**Warning:** Combining the `@` syntax with default arguments can lead
to surprising behaviour, as the passed attributes are bound verbatim.
This means that defaulted arguments are not included in the bound
attribute set:

```nix
({ a ? 1, b }@args: args.a) { b = 1; }
# throws: error: attribute 'a' missing

({ a ? 1, b }@args: args.a) { b = 1; a = 2; }
# => 2
```

## `if ... then ... else ...`

Nix has simple conditional support. Note that `if` is an **expression** in Nix,
which means that both branches must be specified.

```nix
if someCondition
then "it was true"
else "it was false"
```

## `inherit` keyword

The `inherit` keyword is used in attribute sets or `let` bindings to "inherit"
variables from the parent scope.

In short, a statement like `inherit foo;` expands to `foo = foo;`.

Consider this example:

```nix
let
  name = "Slartibartfast";
  # ... other variables
in {
  name = name; # set the attribute set key 'name' to the value of the 'name' var
  # ... other attributes
}
```

The `name = name;` line can be replaced with `inherit name;`:

```nix
let
  name = "Slartibartfast";
  # ... other variables
in {
  inherit name;
  # ... other attributes
}
```

This is often convenient, especially because inherit supports multiple variables
at the same time as well as "inheritance" from other attribute sets:

```nix
{
  inherit name age; # equivalent to `name = name; age = age;`
  inherit (otherAttrs) email; # equivalent to `email = otherAttrs.email`;
}
```

## `with` statements

The `with` statement "imports" all attributes from an attribute set into
variables of the same name:

```nix
let attrs = { a = 15; b = 2; };
in with attrs; a + b # 'a' and 'b' become variables in the scope following 'with'
```

The scope of a `with`-"block" is the expression immediately following the
semicolon, i.e.:

```nix
let attrs = { /* some attributes */ };
in with attrs; (/* this is the scope of the `with` */)
```

## `import` / `NIX_PATH` / `<entry>`

Nix files can import each other by using the builtin `import` function and a
literal path:

```nix
# assuming there is a file lib.nix with some useful functions
let myLib = import ./lib.nix;
in myLib.usefulFunction 42
```

The `import` function will read and evaluate the file, and return its Nix value.

Nix files often begin with a function header to pass parameters into the rest of
the file, so you will often see imports of the form `import ./some-file { ... }`.

Nix has a concept of a `NIX_PATH` (similar to the standard `PATH` environment
variable) which contains named aliases for file paths containing Nix
expressions.

In a standard Nix installation, several [channels][] will be present (for
example `nixpkgs` or `nixos-unstable`) on the `NIX_PATH`.

`NIX_PATH` entries can be accessed using the `<entry>` syntax, which simply
evaluates to their file path:

```nix
<nixpkgs>
# might yield something like `/home/tazjin/.nix-defexpr/channels/nixpkgs`
```

This is commonly used to import from channels:

```nix
let pkgs = import <nixpkgs> {};
in pkgs.something
```

## `or` expressions

Nix has a keyword called `or` which can be used to access a value from an
attribute set while providing a fallback to a default value.

The syntax is simple:

```nix
# Access an existing attribute
let set = { a = 42; };
in set.a or 23
```

Since the attribute `a` exists, this will return `42`.


```nix
# ... or fall back to a default if there is no such key
let set = { };
in set.a or 23
```

Since the attribute `a` does not exist, this will fall back to returning the
default value `23`.

Note that `or` expressions also work for nested attribute set access.

# Standard libraries

Yes, libraries, plural.

Nix has three major things that could be considered its standard library and
while there's a lot of debate to be had about this point, you still need to know
all three.

## `builtins`

Nix comes with several functions that are baked into the language. These work
regardless of which other Nix code you may or may not have imported.

Most of these functions are implemented in the Nix interpreter itself, which
means that they are rather fast when compared to some of the equivalents which
are implemented in Nix itself.

The Nix manual has [a section listing all `builtins`][builtins] and their usage.

Examples of builtins that you will commonly encounter include, but are not
limited to:

* `derivation` (see [Derivations](#derivations))
* `toJSON` / `fromJSON`
* `toString`
* `toPath` / `fromPath`

The builtins also include several functions that have the (spooky) ability to
break Nix' evaluation purity. No functions written in Nix itself can do this.

Examples of those include:

* `fetchGit` which can fetch a git-repository using the environment's default
  git/ssh configuration
* `fetchTarball` which can fetch & extract archives without having to specify
  hashes

Read through the manual linked above to get the full overview.

## `pkgs.lib`

The Nix package set, commonly referred to by Nixers simply as [nixpkgs][],
contains a child attribute set called `lib` which provides a large number of
useful functions.

The canonical definition of these functions is [their source code][lib-src]. I
wrote a tool ([nixdoc][]) in 2018 which generates manual entries for these
functions, however not all of the files are included as of July 2019.

See the [Nixpkgs manual entry on `lib`][lib-manual] for the documentation.

These functions include various utilities for dealing with the data types in Nix
(lists, attribute sets, strings etc.) and it is useful to at least skim through
them to familiarise yourself with what is available.

```nix
{ pkgs ? import <nixpkgs> {} }:

with pkgs.lib; # bring contents pkgs.lib into scope

strings.toUpper "hello"

# yields "HELLO"
```

## `pkgs` itself

The Nix package set itself does not just contain packages, but also many useful
functions which you might run into while creating new Nix packages.

One particular subset of these that stands out are the [trivial builders][],
which provide utilities for writing text files or shell scripts, running shell
commands and capturing their output and so on.

```nix
{ pkgs ? import <nixpkgs> {} }:

pkgs.writeText "hello.txt" "Hello dear reader!"

# yields a derivation which creates a text file with the above content
```

# Derivations

When a Nix expression is evaluated it may yield one or more *derivations*.
Derivations describe a single build action that, when run, places one or more
outputs (whether they be files or folders) in the Nix store.

The builtin function `derivation` is responsible for creating derivations at a
lower level. Usually when Nix users create derivations they will use the
higher-level functions such as [stdenv.mkDerivation][smkd].

Please see the manual [on derivations][drv-manual] for more information, as the
general build logic is out of scope for this document.

# Nix Idioms

There are several idioms in Nix which are not technically part of the language
specification, but will commonly be encountered in the wild.

This section is an (incomplete) list of them.

## File lambdas

It is customary to start every file with a function header that receives the
files dependencies, instead of importing them directly in the file.

Sticking to this pattern lets users of your code easily change out, for example,
the specific version of `nixpkgs` that is used.

A common file header pattern would look like this:

```nix
{ pkgs ? import <nixpkgs> {} }:

# ... 'pkgs' is then used in the code
```

In some sense, you might consider the function header of a file to be its "API".

## `callPackage`

Building on the previous pattern, there is a custom in nixpkgs of specifying the
dependencies of your file explicitly instead of accepting the entire package
set.

For example, a file containing build instructions for a tool that needs the
standard build environment and `libsvg` might start like this:

```nix
# my-funky-program.nix
{ stdenv, libsvg }:

stdenv.mkDerivation { ... }
```

Any time a file follows this header pattern it is probably meant to be imported
using a special function called `callPackage` which is part of the top-level
package set (as well as certain subsets, such as `haskellPackages`).

```nix
{ pkgs ? import <nixpkgs> {} }:

let my-funky-program = pkgs.callPackage ./my-funky-program.nix {};
in # ... something happens with my-funky-program
```

The `callPackage` function looks at the expected arguments (via
`builtins.functionArgs`) and passes the appropriate keys from the set in which
it is defined as the values for each corresponding argument.

## Overrides / Overlays

One of the most powerful features of Nix is that the representation of all build
instructions as data means that they can easily be *overridden* to get a
different result.

For example, assuming there is a package `someProgram` which is built without
our favourite configuration flag (`--mimic-threaten-tag`) we might override it
like this:

```nix
someProgram.overrideAttrs(old: {
    configureFlags = old.configureFlags or [] ++ ["--mimic-threaten-tag"];
})
```

This pattern has a variety of applications of varying complexity. The top-level
package set itself can have an `overlays` argument passed to it which may add
new packages to the imported set.

Note the use of the `or` operator to default to an empty list if the
original flags do not include `configureFlags`. This is required in
case a package does not set any flags by itself.

Since this can change in a package over time, it is useful to guard
against it using `or`.

For a slightly more advanced example, assume that we want to import `<nixpkgs>`
but have the modification above be reflected in the imported package set:

```nix
let
  overlay = (final: prev: {
    someProgram = prev.someProgram.overrideAttrs(old: {
      configureFlags = old.configureFlags or [] ++ ["--mimic-threaten-tag"];
    });
  });
in import <nixpkgs> { overlays = [ overlay ]; }
```

The overlay function receives two arguments, `final` and `prev`. `final` is
the [fixed point][fp] of the overlay's evaluation, i.e. the package set
*including* the new packages and `prev` is the "original" package set.

See the Nix manual sections [on overrides][] and [on overlays][] for more
details (note: the convention has moved away from using `self` in favor of
`final`, and `prev` instead of `super`, but the documentation has not been
updated to reflect this).

[currying]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Currying
[builtins]: https://nixos.org/manual/nix/stable/language/builtins
[nixpkgs]: https://github.com/NixOS/nixpkgs
[lib-src]: https://github.com/NixOS/nixpkgs/tree/master/lib
[nixdoc]: https://github.com/tazjin/nixdoc
[lib-manual]: https://nixos.org/manual/nixpkgs/stable/#sec-functions-library
[channels]: https://nixos.org/manual/nix/stable/command-ref/files/channels
[trivial builders]: https://github.com/NixOS/nixpkgs/blob/master/pkgs/build-support/trivial-builders/default.nix
[smkd]: https://nixos.org/manual/nixpkgs/stable/#chap-stdenv
[drv-manual]: https://nixos.org/manual/nix/stable/language/derivations
[fp]: https://github.com/NixOS/nixpkgs/blob/master/lib/fixed-points.nix
[on overrides]: https://nixos.org/manual/nixpkgs/stable/#chap-overrides
[on overlays]: https://nixos.org/manual/nixpkgs/stable/#chap-overlays