FunctionsTiDBConversion.h

// Copyright 2023 PingCAP, Inc.
//
// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
// You may obtain a copy of the License at
//
//     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
//
// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
// limitations under the License.

#pragma once

#include <Columns/ColumnConst.h>
#include <Columns/ColumnFixedString.h>
#include <Columns/ColumnNullable.h>
#include <Columns/ColumnString.h>
#include <Columns/ColumnsCommon.h>
#include <Common/FieldVisitors.h>
#include <Common/MyDuration.h>
#include <Common/MyTime.h>
#include <DataTypes/DataTypeArray.h>
#include <DataTypes/DataTypeDate.h>
#include <DataTypes/DataTypeDateTime.h>
#include <DataTypes/DataTypeEnum.h>
#include <DataTypes/DataTypeFactory.h>
#include <DataTypes/DataTypeFixedString.h>
#include <DataTypes/DataTypeInterval.h>
#include <DataTypes/DataTypeMyDate.h>
#include <DataTypes/DataTypeMyDateTime.h>
#include <DataTypes/DataTypeMyDuration.h>
#include <DataTypes/DataTypeNothing.h>
#include <DataTypes/DataTypeNullable.h>
#include <DataTypes/DataTypeString.h>
#include <DataTypes/DataTypeTuple.h>
#include <DataTypes/DataTypeUUID.h>
#include <DataTypes/DataTypesNumber.h>
#include <Flash/Coprocessor/DAGContext.h>
#include <Flash/Coprocessor/DAGUtils.h>
#include <Functions/FunctionFactory.h>
#include <Functions/FunctionHelpers.h>
#include <Functions/FunctionsConversion.h>
#include <Functions/FunctionsDateTime.h>
#include <Functions/FunctionsMiscellaneous.h>
#include <Functions/IFunction.h>
#include <Functions/castTypeToEither.h>
#include <IO/Buffer/ReadBufferFromMemory.h>
#include <IO/Buffer/WriteBufferFromVector.h>
#include <IO/Util/Operators.h>
#include <IO/parseDateTimeBestEffort.h>
#include <Interpreters/Context_fwd.h>
#include <Interpreters/ExpressionActions.h>
#include <TiDB/Collation/Collator.h>

#include <ext/collection_cast.h>
#include <ext/enumerate.h>
#include <ext/range.h>
#include <type_traits>


namespace DB
{
String trim(const StringRef & value);

enum CastError
{
    NONE = 0,
    TRUNCATED_ERR,
    OVERFLOW_ERR,
};

namespace
{
constexpr static Int64 pow10[] = {1, 10, 100, 1000, 10000, 100000, 1000000, 10000000, 100000000, 1000000000};
}

ALWAYS_INLINE inline size_t charLengthToByteLengthFromUTF8(const char * data, size_t length, size_t char_length)
{
    size_t ret = 0;
    for (size_t char_index = 0; char_index < char_length && ret < length; ++char_index)
    {
        uint8_t c = data[ret];
        if (c < 0x80)
            ret += 1;
        else if (c < 0xE0)
            ret += 2;
        else if (c < 0xF0)
            ret += 3;
        else
            ret += 4;
    }
    if unlikely (ret > length)
    {
        throw Exception(
            fmt::format(
                "Illegal utf8 byte sequence bytes: {} result_length: {} char_length: {}",
                length,
                ret,
                char_length),
            ErrorCodes::ILLEGAL_COLUMN);
    }
    return ret;
}

/// cast int/real/decimal/time as string
template <typename FromDataType, bool return_nullable>
struct TiDBConvertToString
{
    using FromFieldType = typename FromDataType::FieldType;

    static void execute(
        Block & block,
        const ColumnNumbers & arguments,
        size_t result,
        bool,
        const tipb::FieldType & tp,
        const Context & context)
    {
        size_t size = block.getByPosition(arguments[0]).column->size();
        ColumnUInt8::MutablePtr col_null_map_to;
        ColumnUInt8::Container * vec_null_map_to [[maybe_unused]] = nullptr;
        if constexpr (return_nullable)
        {
            col_null_map_to = ColumnUInt8::create(size, 0);
            vec_null_map_to = &col_null_map_to->getData();
        }
        bool need_padding = tp.tp() == TiDB::TypeString && tp.flen() > 0 && tp.collate() == TiDB::ITiDBCollator::BINARY;

        String padding_string;
        if (need_padding)
            padding_string.resize(tp.flen(), 0);

        const auto & col_with_type_and_name = block.getByPosition(arguments[0]);
        const auto & type = static_cast<const FromDataType &>(*col_with_type_and_name.type);

        auto col_to = ColumnString::create();
        ColumnString::Chars_t & data_to = col_to->getChars();
        ColumnString::Offsets & offsets_to = col_to->getOffsets();

        if constexpr (std::is_same_v<FromDataType, DataTypeString>)
        {
            /// cast string as string
            const IColumn * col_from = block.getByPosition(arguments[0]).column.get();
            const auto * col_from_string = checkAndGetColumn<ColumnString>(col_from);
            const ColumnString::Chars_t * data_from = &col_from_string->getChars();
            const IColumn::Offsets * offsets_from = &col_from_string->getOffsets();

            offsets_to.resize(size);

            WriteBufferFromVector<ColumnString::Chars_t> write_buffer(data_to);

            size_t current_offset = 0;
            for (size_t i = 0; i < size; i++)
            {
                size_t next_offset = (*offsets_from)[i];
                size_t org_length = next_offset - current_offset - 1;
                size_t byte_length = org_length;
                if (tp.flen() >= 0)
                {
                    byte_length = tp.flen();
                    if (tp.charset() == "utf8" || tp.charset() == "utf8mb4")
                        byte_length = charLengthToByteLengthFromUTF8(
                            reinterpret_cast<const char *>(&(*data_from)[current_offset]),
                            org_length,
                            byte_length);
                    byte_length = std::min(byte_length, org_length);
                }
                if (byte_length < org_length)
                    context.getDAGContext()->handleTruncateError("Data Too Long");
                write_buffer.write(reinterpret_cast<const char *>(&(*data_from)[current_offset]), byte_length);
                if (need_padding && byte_length < static_cast<size_t>(tp.flen()))
                    write_buffer.write(padding_string.data(), tp.flen() - byte_length);
                writeChar(0, write_buffer);
                offsets_to[i] = write_buffer.count();
                current_offset = next_offset;
            }

            data_to.resize(write_buffer.count());
        }
        else if constexpr (IsDecimal<FromFieldType>)
        {
            /// cast decimal as string
            const auto * col_from
                = checkAndGetColumn<ColumnDecimal<FromFieldType>>(block.getByPosition(arguments[0]).column.get());
            const typename ColumnDecimal<FromFieldType>::Container & vec_from = col_from->getData();
            ColumnString::Chars_t container_per_element;

            data_to.resize(size * decimal_max_prec + size);
            container_per_element.resize(decimal_max_prec);
            offsets_to.resize(size);

            WriteBufferFromVector<ColumnString::Chars_t> write_buffer(data_to);

            for (size_t i = 0; i < size; ++i)
            {
                WriteBufferFromVector<ColumnString::Chars_t> element_write_buffer(container_per_element);
                FormatImpl<FromDataType>::execute(vec_from[i], element_write_buffer, &type, nullptr);
                size_t byte_length = element_write_buffer.count();
                if (tp.flen() >= 0)
                    byte_length = std::min(byte_length, tp.flen());
                if (byte_length < element_write_buffer.count())
                    context.getDAGContext()->handleTruncateError("Data Too Long");
                write_buffer.write(reinterpret_cast<char *>(container_per_element.data()), byte_length);
                if (need_padding && byte_length < static_cast<size_t>(tp.flen()))
                    write_buffer.write(padding_string.data(), tp.flen() - byte_length);
                writeChar(0, write_buffer);
                offsets_to[i] = write_buffer.count();
            }

            data_to.resize(write_buffer.count());
        }
        else if (
            const auto col_from = checkAndGetColumn<ColumnVector<FromFieldType>>(col_with_type_and_name.column.get()))
        {
            /// cast int/real/time as string
            const typename ColumnVector<FromFieldType>::Container & vec_from = col_from->getData();
            ColumnString::Chars_t container_per_element;

            if constexpr (std::is_same_v<FromDataType, DataTypeMyDate>)
            {
                auto length = strlen("YYYY-MM-DD") + 1;
                data_to.resize(size * length);
                container_per_element.resize(length);
            }
            if constexpr (std::is_same_v<FromDataType, DataTypeMyDateTime>)
            {
                auto length = strlen("YYYY-MM-DD hh:mm:ss") + 1 + (type.getFraction() ? 0 : 1 + type.getFraction());
                data_to.resize(size * length);
                container_per_element.resize(length);
            }
            else
            {
                data_to.resize(size * 3);
                container_per_element.resize(3);
            }
            offsets_to.resize(size);

            WriteBufferFromVector<ColumnString::Chars_t> write_buffer(data_to);

            for (size_t i = 0; i < size; ++i)
            {
                WriteBufferFromVector<ColumnString::Chars_t> element_write_buffer(container_per_element);
                FormatImpl<FromDataType>::execute(vec_from[i], element_write_buffer, &type, nullptr);
                size_t byte_length = element_write_buffer.count();
                if (tp.flen() >= 0)
                    byte_length = std::min(byte_length, tp.flen());
                if (byte_length < element_write_buffer.count())
                    context.getDAGContext()->handleTruncateError("Data Too Long");
                write_buffer.write(reinterpret_cast<char *>(container_per_element.data()), byte_length);
                if (need_padding && byte_length < static_cast<size_t>(tp.flen()))
                    write_buffer.write(padding_string.data(), tp.flen() - byte_length);
                writeChar(0, write_buffer);
                offsets_to[i] = write_buffer.count();
            }

            data_to.resize(write_buffer.count());
        }
        else
            throw Exception(
                "Illegal column " + block.getByPosition(arguments[0]).column->getName()
                    + " of first argument of function tidb_cast",
                ErrorCodes::ILLEGAL_COLUMN);

        if constexpr (return_nullable)
            block.getByPosition(result).column = ColumnNullable::create(std::move(col_to), std::move(col_null_map_to));
        else
            block.getByPosition(result).column = std::move(col_to);
    }
};

/// cast int/real/decimal/time/string as int
template <typename FromDataType, typename ToDataType, bool return_nullable>
struct TiDBConvertToInteger
{
    using FromFieldType = typename FromDataType::FieldType;
    using ToFieldType = typename ToDataType::FieldType;
    static constexpr bool to_unsigned = std::is_unsigned_v<ToFieldType>;

    template <typename T, typename ToFieldType>
    static std::enable_if_t<std::is_floating_point_v<T>, ToFieldType> toUInt(const T & value, const Context & context)
    {
        T rounded_value = std::round(value);
        if (rounded_value < 0)
        {
            context.getDAGContext()->handleOverflowError("Cast real as integer", Errors::Types::Truncated);
            if (context.getDAGContext()->shouldClipToZero())
                return static_cast<ToFieldType>(0);
            return static_cast<ToFieldType>(rounded_value);
        }
        auto field_max = static_cast<T>(std::numeric_limits<ToFieldType>::max());
        if (rounded_value > field_max)
        {
            context.getDAGContext()->handleOverflowError("Cast real as integer", Errors::Types::Truncated);
            return std::numeric_limits<ToFieldType>::max();
        }
        else if (rounded_value == field_max)
        {
            context.getDAGContext()->handleOverflowError("cast real as int", Errors::Types::Truncated);
            return std::numeric_limits<ToFieldType>::max();
        }
        else
            return static_cast<ToFieldType>(rounded_value);
    }

    template <typename T, typename ToFieldType>
    static std::enable_if_t<std::is_floating_point_v<T>, ToFieldType> toInt(const T & value, const Context & context)
    {
        T rounded_value = std::round(value);
        auto field_min = static_cast<T>(std::numeric_limits<ToFieldType>::min());
        auto field_max = static_cast<T>(std::numeric_limits<ToFieldType>::max());
        if (rounded_value < field_min)
        {
            context.getDAGContext()->handleOverflowError("cast real as int", Errors::Types::Truncated);
            return std::numeric_limits<ToFieldType>::min();
        }
        if (rounded_value >= field_max)
        {
            context.getDAGContext()->handleOverflowError("cast real as int", Errors::Types::Truncated);
            return std::numeric_limits<ToFieldType>::max();
        }
        return static_cast<ToFieldType>(rounded_value);
    }

    template <typename T, typename ToFieldType>
    static ToFieldType decToUInt(const DecimalField<T> & value, const Context & context)
    {
        auto v = value.getValue().value;
        if (v < 0)
        {
            context.getDAGContext()->handleOverflowError("cast decimal as int", Errors::Types::Truncated);
            return static_cast<ToFieldType>(0);
        }
        ScaleType scale = value.getScale();
        for (ScaleType i = 0; i < scale; i++)
        {
            v = v / 10 + (i + 1 == scale && v % 10 >= 5);
        }

        Int128 max_value = std::numeric_limits<ToFieldType>::max();
        if (v > max_value)
        {
            context.getDAGContext()->handleOverflowError("cast decimal as int", Errors::Types::Truncated);
            return max_value;
        }
        return static_cast<ToFieldType>(v);
    }

    template <typename T, typename ToFieldType>
    static ToFieldType decToInt(const DecimalField<T> & value, const Context & context)
    {
        auto v = value.getValue().value;
        ScaleType scale = value.getScale();
        for (ScaleType i = 0; i < scale; i++)
        {
            v = v / 10 + (i + 1 == scale && v % 10 >= 5);
        }
        if (v > std::numeric_limits<ToFieldType>::max() || v < std::numeric_limits<ToFieldType>::min())
        {
            context.getDAGContext()->handleOverflowError("cast decimal as int", Errors::Types::Truncated);
            if (v > 0)
                return std::numeric_limits<ToFieldType>::max();
            return std::numeric_limits<ToFieldType>::min();
        }
        return static_cast<ToFieldType>(v);
    }

    static StringRef getValidIntPrefix(const StringRef & value)
    {
        StringRef ret;
        ret.data = value.data;
        ret.size = 0;
        for (; ret.size < value.size; ret.size++)
        {
            char current = value.data[ret.size];
            if ((current >= '0' && current <= '9') || (ret.size == 0 && (current == '+' || current == '-')))
                continue;
            break;
        }
        return ret;
    }

    template <typename T>
    static std::tuple<T, CastError> toUInt(const StringRef & value)
    {
        static const T cut_off = std::numeric_limits<T>::max() / 10;
        if (value.data[0] == '-')
            return std::make_tuple(0, OVERFLOW_ERR);
        size_t pos = value.data[0] == '+' ? 1 : 0;
        T ret = 0;
        for (; pos < value.size; pos++)
        {
            if (ret > cut_off)
                /// overflow
                return std::make_tuple(std::numeric_limits<T>::max(), OVERFLOW_ERR);
            int next = value.data[pos] - '0';
            if (static_cast<T>(ret * 10 + next) < ret)
                /// overflow
                return std::make_tuple(std::numeric_limits<T>::max(), OVERFLOW_ERR);
            ret = ret * 10 + next;
        }

        return std::make_tuple(ret, NONE);
    }

    template <typename T>
    static std::tuple<T, CastError> toInt(const StringRef & value)
    {
        bool is_negative = false;
        UInt64 uint_value = 0;
        CastError err = NONE;
        if (value.data[0] == '-')
        {
            is_negative = true;
            StringRef uint_string(value.data + 1, value.size - 1);
            std::tie(uint_value, err) = toUInt<std::make_unsigned_t<T>>(uint_string);
        }
        else
        {
            std::tie(uint_value, err) = toUInt<std::make_unsigned_t<T>>(value);
        }
        if (err == OVERFLOW_ERR)
            return std::make_tuple(is_negative ? std::numeric_limits<T>::min() : std::numeric_limits<T>::max(), err);
        // todo handle truncate error

        if (is_negative)
        {
            if (uint_value > std::numeric_limits<std::make_unsigned_t<T>>::max() / 2 + 1)
                return std::make_tuple(std::numeric_limits<T>::min(), OVERFLOW_ERR);
            return std::make_tuple(static_cast<T>(-uint_value), NONE);
        }
        else
        {
            if (uint_value > std::numeric_limits<T>::max())
                return std::make_tuple(std::numeric_limits<T>::max(), OVERFLOW_ERR);
            return std::make_tuple(static_cast<T>(uint_value), NONE);
        }
    }

    template <typename T>
    static T strToInt(const StringRef & value, const Context & context)
    {
        // trim space
        String trim_string = trim(value);
        if (trim_string.empty())
        {
            if (value.size != 0)
                context.getDAGContext()->handleTruncateError("cast str as int");
            return static_cast<T>(0);
        }
        StringRef int_string = getValidIntPrefix(StringRef(trim_string));
        if (int_string.size == 0)
        {
            if (value.size != 0)
                context.getDAGContext()->handleTruncateError("cast str as int");
            return static_cast<T>(0);
        }
        bool is_negative = false;
        if (int_string.data[0] == '-')
        {
            is_negative = true;
        }
        if (!is_negative)
        {
            auto [value, err] = toUInt<T>(int_string);
            if (err == OVERFLOW_ERR)
                context.getDAGContext()->handleOverflowError("cast str as int", Errors::Types::Truncated);
            return static_cast<T>(value);
        }
        else
        {
            /// TODO: append warning CastAsSignedOverflow if try to cast negative value to unsigned
            auto [value, err] = toInt<T>(int_string);
            if (err == OVERFLOW_ERR)
                context.getDAGContext()->handleOverflowError("cast str as int", Errors::Types::Truncated);
            return static_cast<T>(value);
        }
    }

    static void execute(
        Block & block,
        const ColumnNumbers & arguments,
        size_t result,
        bool,
        const tipb::FieldType &,
        const Context & context)
    {
        size_t size = block.getByPosition(arguments[0]).column->size();

        auto col_to = ColumnVector<ToFieldType>::create(size, 0);
        typename ColumnVector<ToFieldType>::Container & vec_to = col_to->getData();

        ColumnUInt8::MutablePtr col_null_map_to;
        ColumnUInt8::Container * vec_null_map_to [[maybe_unused]] = nullptr;
        if constexpr (return_nullable)
        {
            col_null_map_to = ColumnUInt8::create(size, 0);
            vec_null_map_to = &col_null_map_to->getData();
        }

        if constexpr (IsDecimal<FromFieldType>)
        {
            /// cast decimal as int
            const auto * col_from
                = checkAndGetColumn<ColumnDecimal<FromFieldType>>(block.getByPosition(arguments[0]).column.get());

            for (size_t i = 0; i < size; ++i)
            {
                auto field = (*col_from)[i].template safeGet<DecimalField<FromFieldType>>();
                if constexpr (to_unsigned)
                {
                    vec_to[i] = decToUInt<FromFieldType, ToFieldType>(field, context);
                }
                else
                {
                    vec_to[i] = decToInt<FromFieldType, ToFieldType>(field, context);
                }
            }
        }
        else if constexpr (
            std::is_same_v<FromDataType, DataTypeMyDateTime> || std::is_same_v<FromDataType, DataTypeMyDate>)
        {
            /// cast time as int
            const auto & col_with_type_and_name = block.getByPosition(arguments[0]);

            const ColumnVector<FromFieldType> * col_from
                = checkAndGetColumn<ColumnVector<FromFieldType>>(col_with_type_and_name.column.get());
            const typename ColumnVector<FromFieldType>::Container & vec_from = col_from->getData();
            for (size_t i = 0; i < size; i++)
            {
                if constexpr (std::is_same_v<DataTypeMyDate, FromDataType>)
                {
                    MyDate date(vec_from[i]);
                    vec_to[i] = date.year * 10000 + date.month * 100 + date.day;
                }
                else
                {
                    MyDateTime date_time(vec_from[i]);
                    vec_to[i] = date_time.year * 10000000000ULL + date_time.month * 100000000ULL
                        + date_time.day * 1000000 + date_time.hour * 10000 + date_time.minute * 100 + date_time.second;
                }
            }
        }
        else if constexpr (std::is_same_v<FromDataType, DataTypeString>)
        {
            /// cast string as int
            const IColumn * col_from = block.getByPosition(arguments[0]).column.get();
            const auto * col_from_string = checkAndGetColumn<ColumnString>(col_from);
            const ColumnString::Chars_t * chars = &col_from_string->getChars();
            const IColumn::Offsets * offsets = &col_from_string->getOffsets();
            size_t current_offset = 0;
            for (size_t i = 0; i < size; i++)
            {
                size_t next_offset = (*offsets)[i];
                size_t string_size = next_offset - current_offset - 1;
                StringRef string_value(&(*chars)[current_offset], string_size);
                vec_to[i] = strToInt<ToFieldType>(string_value, context);
                current_offset = next_offset;
            }
        }
        else if constexpr (std::is_integral_v<FromFieldType>)
        {
            /// cast enum/int as int
            const ColumnVector<FromFieldType> * col_from
                = checkAndGetColumn<ColumnVector<FromFieldType>>(block.getByPosition(arguments[0]).column.get());
            const typename ColumnVector<FromFieldType>::Container & vec_from = col_from->getData();
            for (size_t i = 0; i < size; i++)
                vec_to[i] = static_cast<ToFieldType>(vec_from[i]);
        }
        else if constexpr (std::is_floating_point_v<FromFieldType>)
        {
            /// cast real as int
            const ColumnVector<FromFieldType> * col_from
                = checkAndGetColumn<ColumnVector<FromFieldType>>(block.getByPosition(arguments[0]).column.get());
            const typename ColumnVector<FromFieldType>::Container & vec_from = col_from->getData();
            if constexpr (to_unsigned)
            {
                for (size_t i = 0; i < size; i++)
                    vec_to[i] = toUInt<FromFieldType, ToFieldType>(vec_from[i], context);
            }
            else
            {
                for (size_t i = 0; i < size; i++)
                    vec_to[i] = toInt<FromFieldType, ToFieldType>(vec_from[i], context);
            }
        }
        else
        {
            throw Exception(
                "Illegal column " + block.getByPosition(arguments[0]).column->getName()
                    + " of first argument of function tidb_cast",
                ErrorCodes::ILLEGAL_COLUMN);
        }

        if constexpr (return_nullable)
            block.getByPosition(result).column = ColumnNullable::create(std::move(col_to), std::move(col_null_map_to));
        else
            block.getByPosition(result).column = std::move(col_to);
    }
};

/// cast int/real/decimal/time/string as real
template <typename FromDataType, typename ToDataType, bool return_nullable, bool to_unsigned>
struct TiDBConvertToFloat
{
    static_assert(std::is_same_v<ToDataType, DataTypeFloat32> || std::is_same_v<ToDataType, DataTypeFloat64>);
    using FromFieldType = typename FromDataType::FieldType;
    using ToFieldType = typename ToDataType::FieldType;

    static Float64 produceTargetFloat64(
        Float64 value,
        bool need_truncate,
        Float64 shift,
        Float64 max_f,
        const Context & context)
    {
        if (need_truncate)
        {
            value *= shift;
            value = std::round(value) / shift;
            if (value > max_f)
            {
                context.getDAGContext()->handleOverflowError("cast as real", Errors::Types::Truncated);
                value = max_f;
            }
            if (value < -max_f)
            {
                context.getDAGContext()->handleOverflowError("cast as real", Errors::Types::Truncated);
                value = -max_f;
            }
        }
        if constexpr (to_unsigned)
        {
            if (value < 0)
            {
                context.getDAGContext()->handleOverflowError("cast as real", Errors::Types::Truncated);
                value = 0;
            }
        }
        return value;
    }

    template <typename T>
    static std::enable_if_t<std::is_floating_point_v<T> || std::is_integral_v<T>, Float64> toFloat(
        const T & value,
        bool need_truncate,
        Float64 shift,
        Float64 max_f,
        const Context & context)
    {
        auto float_value = static_cast<Float64>(value);
        return produceTargetFloat64(float_value, need_truncate, shift, max_f, context);
    }

    template <typename T>
    static std::enable_if_t<std::is_floating_point_v<T> || std::is_integral_v<T>, Float64> toFloat(const T & value)
    {
        return static_cast<Float64>(value);
    }

    template <typename T>
    static Float64 toFloat(const DecimalField<T> & value)
    {
        return static_cast<Float64>(value);
    }

    static StringRef getValidFloatPrefix(const StringRef & value)
    {
        StringRef ret;
        ret.data = value.data;
        ret.size = 0;
        bool saw_dot = false;
        bool saw_digit = false;
        int e_idx = -1;
        int i = 0;
        for (; i < static_cast<int>(value.size); i++)
        {
            char c = ret.data[i];
            if (c == '+' || c == '-')
            {
                if (i != 0 && i != e_idx + 1)
                    // "1e+1" is valid.
                    break;
            }
            else if (c == '.')
            {
                if (saw_dot || e_idx > 0)
                    // "1.1." or "1e1.1"
                    break;
                saw_dot = true;
            }
            else if (c == 'e' || c == 'E')
            {
                if (!saw_digit)
                    // "+.e"
                    break;
                if (e_idx != -1)
                    // "1e5e"
                    break;
                e_idx = i;
            }
            else if (c < '0' || c > '9')
            {
                break;
            }
            else
            {
                saw_digit = true;
            }
        }
        ret.size = i;
        return ret;
    }

    static Float64 strToFloat(
        const StringRef & value,
        bool need_truncate,
        Float64 shift,
        Float64 max_f,
        const Context & context)
    {
        String trim_string = trim(value);
        StringRef float_string = getValidFloatPrefix(StringRef(trim_string));
        if (trim_string.empty() && value.size != 0)
        {
            context.getDAGContext()->handleTruncateError("Truncated incorrect DOUBLE value");
            return 0.0;
        }
        if (float_string.size < trim_string.size())
            trim_string[float_string.size] = '\0';
        Float64 f = strtod(float_string.data, nullptr);
        if (f == std::numeric_limits<Float64>::infinity())
        {
            context.getDAGContext()->handleOverflowError("Truncated incorrect DOUBLE value", Errors::Types::Truncated);
            return std::numeric_limits<Float64>::max();
        }
        if (f == -std::numeric_limits<double>::infinity())
        {
            context.getDAGContext()->handleOverflowError("Truncated incorrect DOUBLE value", Errors::Types::Truncated);
            return -std::numeric_limits<Float64>::max();
        }
        return produceTargetFloat64(f, need_truncate, shift, max_f, context);
    }

    static void execute(
        Block & block,
        const ColumnNumbers & arguments,
        size_t result,
        bool,
        const tipb::FieldType & tp,
        const Context & context)
    {
        size_t size = block.getByPosition(arguments[0]).column->size();

        /// NOTICE: Since ToFieldType only can be Float32 or Float64, convert from_value to Float64 and then implicitly cast to ToFieldType is fine.
        auto col_to = ColumnVector<ToFieldType>::create(size, 0);
        typename ColumnVector<ToFieldType>::Container & vec_to = col_to->getData();

        ColumnUInt8::MutablePtr col_null_map_to;
        ColumnUInt8::Container * vec_null_map_to [[maybe_unused]] = nullptr;
        if constexpr (return_nullable)
        {
            col_null_map_to = ColumnUInt8::create(size, 0);
            vec_null_map_to = &col_null_map_to->getData();
        }

        if constexpr (IsDecimal<FromFieldType>)
        {
            /// cast decimal as real
            const auto * col_from
                = checkAndGetColumn<ColumnDecimal<FromFieldType>>(block.getByPosition(arguments[0]).column.get());

            for (size_t i = 0; i < size; ++i)
            {
                auto & field = (*col_from)[i].template safeGet<DecimalField<FromFieldType>>();
                vec_to[i] = toFloat(field);
            }
        }
        else if constexpr (
            std::is_same_v<FromDataType, DataTypeMyDateTime> || std::is_same_v<FromDataType, DataTypeMyDate>)
        {
            /// cast time as real
            const auto & col_with_type_and_name = block.getByPosition(arguments[0]);
            const auto & type = static_cast<const FromDataType &>(*col_with_type_and_name.type);

            const ColumnVector<FromFieldType> * col_from
                = checkAndGetColumn<ColumnVector<FromFieldType>>(col_with_type_and_name.column.get());
            const typename ColumnVector<FromFieldType>::Container & vec_from = col_from->getData();
            for (size_t i = 0; i < size; i++)
            {
                if constexpr (std::is_same_v<DataTypeMyDate, FromDataType>)
                {
                    MyDate date(vec_from[i]);
                    vec_to[i] = toFloat(date.year * 10000 + date.month * 100 + date.day);
                }
                else
                {
                    MyDateTime date_time(vec_from[i]);
                    if (type.getFraction() > 0)
                        vec_to[i] = toFloat(
                            date_time.year * 10000000000ULL + date_time.month * 100000000ULL + date_time.day * 1000000
                            + date_time.hour * 10000 + date_time.minute * 100 + date_time.second
                            + date_time.micro_second / 1000000.0);
                    else
                        vec_to[i] = toFloat(
                            date_time.year * 10000000000ULL + date_time.month * 100000000ULL + date_time.day * 1000000
                            + date_time.hour * 10000 + date_time.minute * 100 + date_time.second);
                }
            }
        }
        else if constexpr (std::is_same_v<FromDataType, DataTypeString>)
        {
            /// cast string as real
            const IColumn * col_from = block.getByPosition(arguments[0]).column.get();
            const auto * col_from_string = checkAndGetColumn<ColumnString>(col_from);
            const ColumnString::Chars_t * chars = &col_from_string->getChars();
            const IColumn::Offsets * offsets = &col_from_string->getOffsets();
            size_t current_offset = 0;
            bool need_truncate = tp.flen() != -1 && tp.decimal() != -1 && tp.flen() >= tp.decimal();
            Float64 shift = 0;
            Float64 max_f = 0;
            if (need_truncate)
            {
                shift = std::pow(static_cast<Float64>(10), tp.flen());
                max_f = std::pow(static_cast<Float64>(10), tp.flen() - tp.decimal()) - 1.0 / shift;
            }
            for (size_t i = 0; i < size; i++)
            {
                size_t next_offset = (*offsets)[i];
                size_t string_size = next_offset - current_offset - 1;
                StringRef string_value(&(*chars)[current_offset], string_size);
                vec_to[i] = strToFloat(string_value, need_truncate, shift, max_f, context);
                current_offset = next_offset;
            }
        }
        else if constexpr (std::is_integral_v<FromFieldType> || std::is_floating_point_v<FromFieldType>)
        {
            /// cast enum/int/real as real
            const ColumnVector<FromFieldType> * col_from
                = checkAndGetColumn<ColumnVector<FromFieldType>>(block.getByPosition(arguments[0]).column.get());
            const typename ColumnVector<FromFieldType>::Container & vec_from = col_from->getData();
            for (size_t i = 0; i < size; i++)
                vec_to[i] = toFloat(vec_from[i]);
        }
        else
        {
            throw Exception(
                "Illegal column " + block.getByPosition(arguments[0]).column->getName()
                    + " for first argument of function tidb_cast",
                ErrorCodes::ILLEGAL_COLUMN);
        }

        if constexpr (return_nullable)
            block.getByPosition(result).column = ColumnNullable::create(std::move(col_to), std::move(col_null_map_to));
        else
            block.getByPosition(result).column = std::move(col_to);
    }
};

/// cast int/real/decimal/enum/string/time/string as decimal
// todo TiKV does not check unsigned flag but TiDB checks, currently follow TiKV's code, maybe changed latter
// There are two optimizations in TiDBConvertToDecimal:
// 1. Skip overflow check if possible, such as cast(tiny_int_val as decimal(10, 0)),
//    we can skip check overflow, because max_tiny_int(127) < to_max_val(10^9).
// 2. Use appropriate type for multiplication of from_int_val and scale_mul(which is 10^abs(scale_diff)).
//    The original implementation always uses Int256, which is very slow.
// The general idea is:
// 1. If from_type_prec + scale_diff <= to_type_prec, we can skip overflow check.
//    Because the max value of from type is less than the max value of to type, so no overflow will happen.
// 2. CastInternalType is the int type with minimum prec which satisfies: from_type_prec + scale_diff <= IntPrec<CastInternalType>::prec - 1.
//    So on the one hand CastInternalType can hold both from_int_value and the result of multiplication of from_int_val and scale_mul,
//    on the other hand the multiplication is as fast as possible.
// NOTE: scale_diff = to_type_scale - from_type_scale.
// NOTE: The above two optimizations only take effects when from type is int/decimal/date/dateimte.
//       The logic of cast doesn't care about CastInternalType(Int512) and can_skip_check_overflow(false) at all when from_type is real or string.
template <
    typename FromDataType,
    typename ToFieldType,
    bool return_nullable,
    bool can_skip_check_overflow,
    typename CastInternalType>
struct TiDBConvertToDecimal
{
    using FromFieldType = typename FromDataType::FieldType;

    template <typename T, typename U>
    static U toTiDBDecimalInternal(
        T int_value,
        const CastInternalType & max_value,
        const CastInternalType & scale_mul,
        const Context & context)
    {
        // int_value is the value that exposes to user. Such as cast(val to decimal), val is the int_value which used by user.
        // And val * scale_mul is the scaled_value, which is stored in ColumnDecimal internally.
        static_assert(std::is_integral_v<T>);
        using UType = typename U::NativeType;

        CastInternalType scaled_value = static_cast<CastInternalType>(int_value) * scale_mul;
        return handleOverflowErrorForIntAndDecimal<UType>(context, scaled_value, max_value, "cast to decimal");
    }

    template <typename U>
    static U toTiDBDecimal(
        MyDateTime & date_time,
        const CastInternalType & max_value,
        ScaleType from_scale,
        ScaleType to_scale,
        const CastInternalType & scale_mul,
        int fsp,
        const Context & context)
    {
        UInt64 value_without_fsp = date_time.year * 10000000000ULL + date_time.month * 100000000ULL
            + date_time.day * 1000000ULL + date_time.hour * 10000ULL + date_time.minute * 100ULL + date_time.second;
        if (fsp > 0)
        {
            Int128 value = static_cast<Int128>(value_without_fsp) * 1000000 + date_time.micro_second;
            Decimal128 decimal(value);
            return toTiDBDecimal<Decimal128, U>(decimal, from_scale, max_value, to_scale, scale_mul, context);
        }
        else
        {
            return toTiDBDecimalInternal<UInt64, U>(value_without_fsp, max_value, scale_mul, context);
        }
    }

    template <typename U>
    static U toTiDBDecimal(
        MyDate & date,
        const CastInternalType & max_value,
        const CastInternalType & scale_mul,
        const Context & context)
    {
        UInt64 value = date.year * 10000 + date.month * 100 + date.day;
        return toTiDBDecimalInternal<UInt64, U>(value, max_value, scale_mul, context);
    }

    template <typename T, typename U>
    static std::enable_if_t<std::is_integral_v<T>, U> toTiDBDecimal(
        T value,
        const CastInternalType & max_value,
        const CastInternalType & scale_mul,
        const Context & context)
    {
        if constexpr (std::is_signed_v<T>)
            return toTiDBDecimalInternal<T, U>(value, max_value, scale_mul, context);
        else
            return toTiDBDecimalInternal<UInt64, U>(static_cast<UInt64>(value), max_value, scale_mul, context);
    }

    template <typename T, typename U>
    static std::enable_if_t<std::is_floating_point_v<T>, U> toTiDBDecimal(
        T value,
        PrecType prec,
        ScaleType scale,
        const Context & context)
    {
        using UType = typename U::NativeType;
        bool neg = false;
        if (value < 0)
        {
            neg = true;
            value = -value;
        }
        for (ScaleType i = 0; i < scale; i++)
        {
            value *= 10;
        }
        auto max_value = DecimalMaxValue::get(prec);
        if (value > static_cast<Float64>(max_value))
        {
            context.getDAGContext()->handleOverflowError("cast real to decimal", Errors::Types::Truncated);
            if (!neg)
                return static_cast<UType>(max_value);
            else
                return static_cast<UType>(-max_value);
        }
        // rounding
        T ten_times_value = value * 10;
        UType v(value);
        Int32 remain = static_cast<Int32>(Int256(ten_times_value) % 10);
        if (remain != 0)
            context.getDAGContext()->handleTruncateError("cast real as decimal");
        if (remain % 10 >= 5)
        {
            v++;
        }
        if (neg)
        {
            v = -v;
        }
        return v;
    }

    template <typename T, typename U>
    static std::enable_if_t<IsDecimal<T>, U> toTiDBDecimal(
        const T & v,
        ScaleType v_scale,
        const CastInternalType & max_value,
        ScaleType scale,
        const CastInternalType & scale_mul,
        const Context & context)
    {
        using UType = typename U::NativeType;
        auto value = static_cast<CastInternalType>(v.value);

        if (v_scale < scale)
        {
            value *= scale_mul;
        }
        else if (v_scale > scale)
        {
            const bool need_to_round = ((value < 0 ? -value : value) % scale_mul) >= (scale_mul / 2);
            auto old_value = value;
            value /= scale_mul;
            if (need_to_round)
            {
                if (value < 0)
                    --value;
                else
                    ++value;
            }
            if (old_value != value * scale_mul)
                context.getDAGContext()->appendWarning("Truncate in cast decimal as decimal");
        }
        else
        {
            // If v_scale == scale, then scale_mul must be 1, no need to touch value.
            assert(scale_mul == 1);
        }

        return handleOverflowErrorForIntAndDecimal<UType>(context, value, max_value, "cast decimal to decimal");
    }

    struct DecimalParts
    {
        StringRef int_part;
        StringRef frac_part;
        StringRef exp_part;
    };

    static DecimalParts splitDecimalString(const StringRef & value)
    {
        DecimalParts ret;
        ret.int_part.size = ret.frac_part.size = ret.exp_part.size = 0;
        size_t start = 0;
        size_t end = 0;
        if (value.data[end] == '+' || value.data[end] == '-')
            end++;
        for (; end < value.size; end++)
        {
            if (value.data[end] > '9' || value.data[end] < '0')
                break;
        }
        ret.int_part.data = &value.data[start];
        ret.int_part.size = end - start;
        if (end < value.size && value.data[end] == '.')
        {
            /// frac part
            start = end + 1;
            end = start;
            for (; end < value.size; end++)
            {
                if (value.data[end] > '9' || value.data[end] < '0')
                    break;
            }
            ret.frac_part.data = &value.data[start];
            ret.frac_part.size = end - start;
        }
        if (end < value.size && (value.data[end] == 'e' || value.data[end] == 'E'))
        {
            /// exponent part
            start = end + 1;
            end = start;
            if (value.data[end] == '+' || value.data[end] == '-')
                end++;
            for (; end < value.size; end++)
            {
                if (value.data[end] > '9' || value.data[end] < '0')
                    break;
            }
            ret.exp_part.data = &value.data[start];
            ret.exp_part.size = end - start;
        }
        return ret;
    }

    template <typename U>
    static U strToTiDBDecimal(const StringRef & value, PrecType prec, ScaleType scale, const Context & context)
    {
        using UType = typename U::NativeType;
        const StringRef trim_string = trim(value);
        if (trim_string.size == 0)
            return static_cast<UType>(0);
        DecimalParts decimal_parts = splitDecimalString(value);
        Int64 frac_offset_by_exponent = 0;
        CastError err = NONE;
        if (decimal_parts.exp_part.size != 0)
        {
            std::tie(frac_offset_by_exponent, err)
                = TiDBConvertToInteger<DataTypeUInt8, DataTypeInt64, false>::toInt<Int64>(decimal_parts.exp_part);
            /// follow TiDB's code
            if (err == OVERFLOW_ERR || frac_offset_by_exponent > std::numeric_limits<Int32>::max() / 2
                || frac_offset_by_exponent < std::numeric_limits<Int32>::min() / 2)
            {
                context.getDAGContext()->handleOverflowError("cast string as decimal", Errors::Types::Truncated);
                if (decimal_parts.exp_part.data[0] == '-')
                    return static_cast<UType>(0);
                else
                    return static_cast<UType>(DecimalMaxValue::get(prec));
            }
        }
        Int256 v = 0;
        bool is_negative = false;
        size_t pos = 0;
        if (decimal_parts.int_part.data[pos] == '+' || decimal_parts.int_part.data[pos] == '-')
        {
            if (decimal_parts.int_part.data[pos] == '-')
                is_negative = true;
            pos++;
        }
        Int256 max_value = DecimalMaxValue::get(prec);

        Int64 current_scale = frac_offset_by_exponent >= 0
            ? -(decimal_parts.int_part.size - pos + frac_offset_by_exponent)
            : -frac_offset_by_exponent - (decimal_parts.int_part.size - pos + decimal_parts.frac_part.size);

        /// handle original int part
        for (; pos < decimal_parts.int_part.size; pos++)
        {
            if (current_scale == scale)
                break;
            v = v * 10 + decimal_parts.int_part.data[pos] - '0';
            if (v > max_value)
            {
                context.getDAGContext()->handleOverflowError("cast string as decimal", Errors::Types::Truncated);
                return static_cast<UType>(is_negative ? -max_value : max_value);
            }
            current_scale++;
        }

        if (current_scale == scale)
        {
            if (pos < decimal_parts.int_part.size || decimal_parts.frac_part.size > 0)
                context.getDAGContext()->handleTruncateError("cast string as decimal");
            /// do not need to handle original frac part, just do rounding
            if (pos < decimal_parts.int_part.size)
            {
                if (decimal_parts.int_part.data[pos] >= '5')
                    v++;
            }
            else if (decimal_parts.frac_part.size > 0 && decimal_parts.frac_part.data[0] >= '5')
            {
                v++;
            }
        }
        else
        {
            /// handle original frac part
            pos = 0;
            for (; pos < decimal_parts.frac_part.size; pos++)
            {
                if (current_scale == scale)
                    break;
                v = v * 10 + decimal_parts.frac_part.data[pos] - '0';
                if (v > max_value)
                {
                    context.getDAGContext()->handleOverflowError("cast string as decimal", Errors::Types::Truncated);
                    return static_cast<UType>(is_negative ? -max_value : max_value);
                }
                current_scale++;
            }
            if (current_scale == scale)
            {
                if (pos < decimal_parts.frac_part.size)
                    context.getDAGContext()->handleTruncateError("cast string as decimal");
                if (pos < decimal_parts.frac_part.size && decimal_parts.frac_part.data[pos] >= '5')
                    v++;
            }
            else
            {
                while (current_scale < scale)
                {
                    v *= 10;
                    if (v > max_value)
                    {
                        context.getDAGContext()->handleOverflowError(
                            "cast string as decimal",
                            Errors::Types::Truncated);
                        return static_cast<UType>(is_negative ? -max_value : max_value);
                    }
                    current_scale++;
                }
            }
        }

        if (v > max_value)
        {
            context.getDAGContext()->handleOverflowError("cast string as decimal", Errors::Types::Truncated);
            return static_cast<UType>(is_negative ? -max_value : max_value);
        }
        return static_cast<UType>(is_negative ? -v : v);
    }

    /// cast int/real/enum/string/time/decimal as decimal
    static void execute(
        Block & block,
        const ColumnNumbers & arguments,
        size_t result,
        PrecType prec [[maybe_unused]],
        ScaleType scale,
        bool,
        const tipb::FieldType &,
        const Context & context)
    {
        size_t size = block.getByPosition(arguments[0]).column->size();
        auto col_to = ColumnDecimal<ToFieldType>::create(size, static_cast<ToFieldType>(0), scale);
        typename ColumnDecimal<ToFieldType>::Container & vec_to = col_to->getData();

        ColumnUInt8::MutablePtr col_null_map_to;
        ColumnUInt8::Container * vec_null_map_to [[maybe_unused]] = nullptr;
        if constexpr (return_nullable)
        {
            col_null_map_to = ColumnUInt8::create(size, 0);
            vec_null_map_to = &col_null_map_to->getData();
        }

        if constexpr (IsDecimal<FromFieldType>)
        {
            /// cast decimal as decimal
            const auto * col_from
                = checkAndGetColumn<ColumnDecimal<FromFieldType>>(block.getByPosition(arguments[0]).column.get());
            const typename ColumnDecimal<FromFieldType>::Container & vec_from = col_from->getData();

            const CastInternalType max_value = getMaxValueIfNecessary(prec);
            const CastInternalType scale_mul = getScaleMulForDecimalToDecimal(col_from->getScale(), scale);
            for (size_t i = 0; i < size; ++i)
                vec_to[i] = toTiDBDecimal<FromFieldType, ToFieldType>(
                    vec_from[i],
                    vec_from.getScale(),
                    max_value,
                    scale,
                    scale_mul,
                    context);
        }
        else if constexpr (
            std::is_same_v<DataTypeMyDateTime, FromDataType> || std::is_same_v<DataTypeMyDate, FromDataType>)
        {
            /// cast time as decimal
            const auto & col_with_type_and_name = block.getByPosition(arguments[0]);
            const auto & type = static_cast<const FromDataType &>(*col_with_type_and_name.type);

            const ColumnVector<FromFieldType> * col_from
                = checkAndGetColumn<ColumnVector<FromFieldType>>(col_with_type_and_name.column.get());
            const typename ColumnVector<FromFieldType>::Container & vec_from = col_from->getData();

            const CastInternalType max_value = getMaxValueIfNecessary(prec);
            if constexpr (std::is_same_v<DataTypeMyDate, FromDataType>)
            {
                const CastInternalType scale_mul = getScaleMultiplier<CastInternalType>(scale);
                for (size_t i = 0; i < size; ++i)
                {
                    MyDate date(vec_from[i]);
                    vec_to[i] = toTiDBDecimal<ToFieldType>(date, max_value, scale_mul, context);
                }
            }
            else
            {
                // Check getMinPrecForHoldingDatetime() to see why from_scale is 6.
                static constexpr ScaleType from_scale = 6;
                const CastInternalType scale_mul = getScaleMulForDecimalToDecimal(from_scale, scale);
                for (size_t i = 0; i < size; ++i)
                {
                    MyDateTime date_time(vec_from[i]);
                    vec_to[i] = toTiDBDecimal<ToFieldType>(
                        date_time,
                        max_value,
                        from_scale,
                        scale,
                        scale_mul,
                        type.getFraction(),
                        context);
                }
            }
        }
        else if constexpr (std::is_same_v<DataTypeString, FromDataType>)
        {
            /// cast string as decimal
            const IColumn * col_from = block.getByPosition(arguments[0]).column.get();
            const auto * col_from_string = checkAndGetColumn<ColumnString>(col_from);
            const ColumnString::Chars_t * chars = &col_from_string->getChars();
            const IColumn::Offsets * offsets = &col_from_string->getOffsets();
            size_t current_offset = 0;
            for (size_t i = 0; i < size; i++)
            {
                size_t next_offset = (*offsets)[i];
                size_t string_size = next_offset - current_offset - 1;
                StringRef string_value(&(*chars)[current_offset], string_size);
                vec_to[i] = strToTiDBDecimal<ToFieldType>(string_value, prec, scale, context);
                current_offset = next_offset;
            }
        }
        else if (
            const ColumnVector<FromFieldType> * col_from
            = checkAndGetColumn<ColumnVector<FromFieldType>>(block.getByPosition(arguments[0]).column.get()))
        {
            const typename ColumnVector<FromFieldType>::Container & vec_from = col_from->getData();

            if constexpr (std::is_integral_v<FromFieldType>)
            {
                /// cast enum/int as decimal
                const CastInternalType max_value = getMaxValueIfNecessary(prec);
                const CastInternalType scale_mul = getScaleMultiplier<CastInternalType>(scale);
                for (size_t i = 0; i < size; ++i)
                    vec_to[i] = toTiDBDecimal<FromFieldType, ToFieldType>(vec_from[i], max_value, scale_mul, context);
            }
            else
            {
                static_assert(std::is_floating_point_v<FromFieldType>);
                /// cast real as decimal
                for (size_t i = 0; i < size; ++i)
                    // Always use Float64 to avoid overflow for vec_from[i] * 10^scale.
                    vec_to[i]
                        = toTiDBDecimal<Float64, ToFieldType>(static_cast<Float64>(vec_from[i]), prec, scale, context);
            }
        }
        else
        {
            throw Exception(
                "Illegal column " + block.getByPosition(arguments[0]).column->getName()
                    + " of first argument of function tidb_cast",
                ErrorCodes::ILLEGAL_COLUMN);
        }
        if constexpr (return_nullable)
            block.getByPosition(result).column = ColumnNullable::create(std::move(col_to), std::move(col_null_map_to));
        else
            block.getByPosition(result).column = std::move(col_to);
    }

    template <typename ReturnType>
    static ReturnType handleOverflowErrorForIntAndDecimal(
        const Context & context,
        const CastInternalType & to_value,
        const CastInternalType & max_value [[maybe_unused]],
        const String & msg)
    {
        if constexpr (!can_skip_check_overflow)
        {
            if (to_value > max_value || to_value < -max_value)
            {
                context.getDAGContext()->handleOverflowError(msg, Errors::Types::Truncated);
                if (to_value > 0)
                    return static_cast<ReturnType>(max_value);
                else
                    return static_cast<ReturnType>(-max_value);
            }
        }
        return static_cast<ReturnType>(to_value);
    }

    // max_value is useless if can_skip_check_overflow is true.
    static CastInternalType getMaxValueIfNecessary(PrecType prec [[maybe_unused]])
    {
        if constexpr (!can_skip_check_overflow)
        {
            return static_cast<CastInternalType>(DecimalMaxValue::get(prec));
        }
        else
        {
            return 0;
        }
    }

    // Only used for cast decimal to decimal.
    static CastInternalType getScaleMulForDecimalToDecimal(ScaleType from_scale, ScaleType to_scale)
    {
        const ScaleType scale_diff = ((from_scale > to_scale) ? (from_scale - to_scale) : (to_scale - from_scale));
        return getScaleMultiplier<CastInternalType>(scale_diff);
    }
};

/// cast int/real/decimal/time/string as Date/DateTime
template <typename FromDataType, typename ToDataType, bool return_nullable>
struct TiDBConvertToTime
{
public:
    static_assert(std::is_same_v<ToDataType, DataTypeMyDate> || std::is_same_v<ToDataType, DataTypeMyDateTime>);

    using FromFieldType = typename FromDataType::FieldType;
    using ToFieldType = typename ToDataType::FieldType;

    static void execute(
        Block & block,
        const ColumnNumbers & arguments,
        size_t result,
        bool,
        const tipb::FieldType &,
        const Context &)
    {
        size_t size = block.getByPosition(arguments[0]).column->size();
        auto col_to = ColumnUInt64::create(size, 0);
        ColumnUInt64::Container & vec_to = col_to->getData();

        ColumnUInt8::MutablePtr col_null_map_to;
        ColumnUInt8::Container * vec_null_map_to [[maybe_unused]] = nullptr;

        const auto & col_with_type_and_name = block.getByPosition(arguments[0]);
        const auto & type = static_cast<const FromDataType &>(*col_with_type_and_name.type);

        int to_fsp [[maybe_unused]] = 0;
        if constexpr (std::is_same_v<ToDataType, DataTypeMyDateTime>)
        {
            const auto * tp
                = dynamic_cast<const DataTypeMyDateTime *>(removeNullable(block.getByPosition(result).type).get());
            to_fsp = tp->getFraction();
        }

        if constexpr (return_nullable)
        {
            col_null_map_to = ColumnUInt8::create(size, 0);
            vec_null_map_to = &col_null_map_to->getData();
        }
        if constexpr (std::is_same_v<FromDataType, DataTypeString>)
        {
            // cast string as time
            const auto & col_with_type_and_name = block.getByPosition(arguments[0]);
            const auto * col_from = checkAndGetColumn<ColumnString>(col_with_type_and_name.column.get());
            const ColumnString::Chars_t * chars = &col_from->getChars();
            const ColumnString::Offsets * offsets = &col_from->getOffsets();

            size_t current_offset = 0;
            for (size_t i = 0; i < size; ++i)
            {
                size_t next_offset = (*offsets)[i];
                size_t string_size = next_offset - current_offset - 1;
                StringRef string_ref(&(*chars)[current_offset], string_size);
                String string_value = string_ref.toString();

                Field packed_uint_value = parseMyDateTime(string_value, to_fsp, checkTimeValidAllowMonthAndDayZero);

                if (packed_uint_value.isNull())
                {
                    // Fill NULL if cannot parse
                    (*vec_null_map_to)[i] = 1;
                    vec_to[i] = 0;
                    current_offset = next_offset;
                    continue;
                }

                UInt64 packed_uint = packed_uint_value.template safeGet<UInt64>();
                MyDateTime datetime(packed_uint);
                if constexpr (std::is_same_v<ToDataType, DataTypeMyDate>)
                {
                    MyDate date(datetime.year, datetime.month, datetime.day);
                    vec_to[i] = date.toPackedUInt();
                }
                else
                {
                    vec_to[i] = packed_uint;
                }

                current_offset = next_offset;
            }
        }
        else if constexpr (
            std::is_same_v<FromDataType, DataTypeMyDate> || std::is_same_v<FromDataType, DataTypeMyDateTime>)
        {
            // cast time as time
            const auto * col_from = checkAndGetColumn<ColumnUInt64>(block.getByPosition(arguments[0]).column.get());
            const ColumnUInt64::Container & vec_from = col_from->getData();

            for (size_t i = 0; i < size; ++i)
            {
                MyDateTime datetime(vec_from[i]);

                if constexpr (std::is_same_v<ToDataType, DataTypeMyDate>)
                {
                    MyDate date(datetime.year, datetime.month, datetime.day);
                    vec_to[i] = date.toPackedUInt();
                }
                else
                {
                    int from_fsp = 0;
                    if constexpr (std::is_same_v<FromDataType, DataTypeMyDateTime>)
                    {
                        const auto & from_type = static_cast<const DataTypeMyDateTime &>(type);
                        from_fsp = from_type.getFraction();
                    }
                    UInt32 micro_second = datetime.micro_second;
                    UInt64 packed_uint = vec_from[i];
                    if (to_fsp < from_fsp)
                    {
                        micro_second = micro_second / std::pow(10, 6 - to_fsp - 1);
                        micro_second = (micro_second + 5) / 10;
                        // Overflow
                        if (micro_second >= std::pow(10, to_fsp))
                        {
                            static const auto & lut = DateLUT::instance("UTC");
                            datetime.micro_second = 0;
                            packed_uint = datetime.toPackedUInt();
                            packed_uint = AddSecondsImpl::execute(packed_uint, 1, lut);
                        }
                        else
                        {
                            datetime.micro_second = micro_second * std::pow(10, 6 - to_fsp);
                            packed_uint = datetime.toPackedUInt();
                        }
                    }
                    vec_to[i] = packed_uint;
                }
            }
        }
        else if constexpr (std::is_integral_v<FromFieldType>)
        {
            // cast int as time
            const ColumnVector<FromFieldType> * col_from
                = checkAndGetColumn<ColumnVector<FromFieldType>>(block.getByPosition(arguments[0]).column.get());

            const typename ColumnVector<FromFieldType>::Container & vec_from = col_from->getData();

            for (size_t i = 0; i < size; ++i)
            {
                MyDateTime datetime(0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0);
                bool is_null = numberToDateTime(vec_from[i], datetime, false);

                if (is_null)
                {
                    (*vec_null_map_to)[i] = 1;
                    vec_to[i] = 0;
                    continue;
                }

                if constexpr (std::is_same_v<ToDataType, DataTypeMyDate>)
                {
                    MyDate date(datetime.year, datetime.month, datetime.day);
                    vec_to[i] = date.toPackedUInt();
                }
                else
                {
                    vec_to[i] = datetime.toPackedUInt();
                }
                (*vec_null_map_to)[i] = is_null;
            }
        }
        else if constexpr (std::is_floating_point_v<FromFieldType>)
        {
            // cast float as time
            // MySQL compatibility: 0 should not be converted to null, see TiDB#11203
            assert(return_nullable);
            const ColumnVector<FromFieldType> * col_from
                = checkAndGetColumn<ColumnVector<FromFieldType>>(block.getByPosition(arguments[0]).column.get());

            const typename ColumnVector<FromFieldType>::Container & vec_from = col_from->getData();

            for (size_t i = 0; i < size; ++i)
            {
                Float64 value = vec_from[i];
                // Convert to string and then parse to time
                String value_str = toString(value);

                Field packed_uint_value = parseMyDateTimeFromFloat(value_str, to_fsp, noNeedCheckTime);

                if (packed_uint_value.isNull())
                {
                    // Fill NULL if cannot parse
                    (*vec_null_map_to)[i] = 1;
                    vec_to[i] = 0;
                    continue;
                }

                UInt64 packed_uint = packed_uint_value.template safeGet<UInt64>();
                MyDateTime datetime(packed_uint);
                if constexpr (std::is_same_v<ToDataType, DataTypeMyDate>)
                {
                    MyDate date(datetime.year, datetime.month, datetime.day);
                    vec_to[i] = date.toPackedUInt();
                }
                else
                {
                    vec_to[i] = packed_uint;
                }
            }
        }
        else if constexpr (IsDecimal<FromFieldType>)
        {
            const auto * col_from
                = checkAndGetColumn<ColumnDecimal<FromFieldType>>(block.getByPosition(arguments[0]).column.get());
            const typename ColumnDecimal<FromFieldType>::Container & vec_from = col_from->getData();


            for (size_t i = 0; i < size; i++)
            {
                String value_str = vec_from[i].toString(type.getScale());

                Field value = parseMyDateTimeFromFloat(value_str, to_fsp, noNeedCheckTime);

                if (value.getType() == Field::Types::Null)
                {
                    (*vec_null_map_to)[i] = 1;
                    vec_to[i] = 0;
                    continue;
                }

                MyDateTime datetime(value.template safeGet<UInt64>());
                if constexpr (std::is_same_v<ToDataType, DataTypeMyDate>)
                {
                    MyDate date(datetime.year, datetime.month, datetime.day);
                    vec_to[i] = date.toPackedUInt();
                }
                else
                {
                    vec_to[i] = datetime.toPackedUInt();
                }
            }
        }
        else
        {
            throw Exception(
                fmt::format(
                    "Illegal column {} of first argument of function tidb_cast",
                    block.getByPosition(arguments[0]).column->getName()),
                ErrorCodes::ILLEGAL_COLUMN);
        }

        if constexpr (return_nullable)
            block.getByPosition(result).column = ColumnNullable::create(std::move(col_to), std::move(col_null_map_to));
        else
            block.getByPosition(result).column = std::move(col_to);
    }

private:
    template <typename T>
    static void handleInvalidTime(const Context & context, const T & value)
    {
        context.getDAGContext()->handleInvalidTime(
            fmt::format("Invalid time value: '{}'", value),
            Errors::Types::WrongValue);
    }
};

/// cast time/duration as duration
/// TODO: support more types convert to duration
template <typename FromDataType, typename ToDataType, bool return_nullable>
struct TiDBConvertToDuration
{
    static_assert(std::is_same_v<ToDataType, DataTypeMyDuration>);

    using FromFieldType = typename FromDataType::FieldType;
    using ToFieldType = typename ToDataType::FieldType;

    static void execute(
        Block & block,
        const ColumnNumbers & arguments,
        [[maybe_unused]] size_t result,
        bool,
        const tipb::FieldType &,
        [[maybe_unused]] const Context & context)
    {
        size_t size = block.getByPosition(arguments[0]).column->size();
        ColumnUInt8::MutablePtr col_null_map_to;
        ColumnUInt8::Container * vec_null_map_to [[maybe_unused]] = nullptr;

        if constexpr (return_nullable)
        {
            col_null_map_to = ColumnUInt8::create(size, 0);
            vec_null_map_to = &col_null_map_to->getData();
        }

        if constexpr (std::is_same_v<FromDataType, DataTypeMyDuration>)
        {
            const auto & from_type
                = checkAndGetDataType<DataTypeMyDuration>(block.getByPosition(arguments[0]).type.get());
            int from_fsp = from_type->getFsp();
            const auto & to_type
                = checkAndGetDataType<DataTypeMyDuration>(removeNullable(block.getByPosition(result).type).get());
            int to_fsp = to_type->getFsp();
            if (to_fsp > from_fsp)
                block.getByPosition(result).column = block.getByPosition(arguments[0]).column;
            else
            {
                // round half up
                const auto & from_col = checkAndGetColumn<ColumnVector<DataTypeMyDuration::FieldType>>(
                    block.getByPosition(arguments[0]).column.get());
                const auto & from_vec = from_col->getData();
                auto to_col = ColumnVector<Int64>::create();
                auto & to_vec = to_col->getData();
                to_vec.resize(size);

                for (size_t i = 0; i < size; ++i)
                {
                    to_vec[i] = round(from_vec[i], (6 - to_fsp) + 3);
                }
                block.getByPosition(result).column = std::move(to_col);
            }
        }
        else if constexpr (std::is_same_v<FromDataType, DataTypeMyDate>)
        {
            // cast date as duration
            const auto & to_type
                = checkAndGetDataType<DataTypeMyDuration>(removeNullable(block.getByPosition(result).type).get());
            block.getByPosition(result).column = to_type->createColumnConst(
                size,
                toField(
                    0)); // The DATE type is used for values with a date part but no time part. The value of Duration is always zero.
        }
        else if constexpr (std::is_same_v<FromDataType, DataTypeMyDateTime>)
        {
            // cast time as duration
            const auto * col_from = checkAndGetColumn<ColumnUInt64>(block.getByPosition(arguments[0]).column.get());
            const ColumnUInt64::Container & from_vec = col_from->getData();
            const auto & from_type
                = checkAndGetDataType<DataTypeMyDateTime>(block.getByPosition(arguments[0]).type.get());
            int from_fsp = from_type->getFraction();

            auto to_col = ColumnVector<Int64>::create();
            auto & vec_to = to_col->getData();
            vec_to.resize(size);
            const auto & to_type
                = checkAndGetDataType<DataTypeMyDuration>(removeNullable(block.getByPosition(result).type).get());
            int to_fsp = to_type->getFsp();

            for (size_t i = 0; i < size; ++i)
            {
                MyDateTime datetime(from_vec[i]);
                MyDuration duration(
                    1 /*neg*/,
                    datetime.hour,
                    datetime.minute,
                    datetime.second,
                    datetime.micro_second,
                    from_fsp);
                if (to_fsp < from_fsp)
                {
                    vec_to[i] = round(duration.nanoSecond(), (6 - to_fsp) + 3);
                }
                else
                {
                    vec_to[i] = duration.nanoSecond();
                }
            }
            block.getByPosition(result).column = std::move(to_col);
        }
        else
        {
            throw Exception(
                fmt::format(
                    "Illegal column {} of first argument of function tidb_cast",
                    block.getByPosition(arguments[0]).column->getName()),
                ErrorCodes::ILLEGAL_COLUMN);
        }

        if constexpr (return_nullable)
            block.getByPosition(result).column
                = ColumnNullable::create(std::move(block.getByPosition(result).column), std::move(col_null_map_to));
    }

    static Int64 round(Int64 x, int fsp)
    {
        Int64 scale = pow10[fsp];
        bool negative = x < 0;
        if (negative)
            x = -x;
        x = (x + scale / 2) / scale * scale;
        if (negative)
            x = -x;
        return x;
    }
};

template <typename...>
class ExecutableFunctionTiDBCast : public IExecutableFunction
{
public:
    using WrapperType
        = std::function<void(Block &, const ColumnNumbers &, size_t, bool, const tipb::FieldType &, const Context &)>;

    ExecutableFunctionTiDBCast(
        WrapperType && wrapper_function,
        const char * name_,
        bool in_union_,
        const tipb::FieldType & tidb_tp_,
        const Context & context_)
        : wrapper_function(std::move(wrapper_function))
        , name(name_)
        , in_union(in_union_)
        , tidb_tp(tidb_tp_)
        , context(context_)
    {}

    String getName() const override { return name; }

protected:
    void executeImpl(Block & block, const ColumnNumbers & arguments, size_t result) const override
    {
        ColumnNumbers new_arguments{arguments.front()};
        wrapper_function(block, new_arguments, result, in_union, tidb_tp, context);
    }

    bool useDefaultImplementationForConstants() const override { return true; }
    bool useDefaultImplementationForNulls() const override { return false; }
    ColumnNumbers getArgumentsThatAreAlwaysConstant() const override { return {1}; }

private:
    WrapperType wrapper_function;
    const char * name;
    bool in_union;
    const tipb::FieldType & tidb_tp;
    const Context & context;
};

using MonotonicityForRange
    = std::function<IFunctionBase::Monotonicity(const IDataType &, const Field &, const Field &)>;

/// FunctionTiDBCast implements SQL cast function in TiDB
/// The basic idea is to dispatch according to combinations of <From, To> parameter types
template <typename...>
class FunctionTiDBCast final : public IFunctionBase
{
public:
    using WrapperType
        = std::function<void(Block &, const ColumnNumbers &, size_t, bool, const tipb::FieldType &, const Context &)>;

    FunctionTiDBCast(
        const Context & context,
        const char * name,
        MonotonicityForRange && monotonicity_for_range,
        const DataTypes & argument_types,
        const DataTypePtr & return_type,
        bool in_union_,
        const tipb::FieldType & tidb_tp_)
        : context(context)
        , name(name)
        , monotonicity_for_range(monotonicity_for_range)
        , argument_types(argument_types)
        , return_type(return_type)
        , in_union(in_union_)
        , tidb_tp(tidb_tp_)
    {}

    const DataTypes & getArgumentTypes() const override { return argument_types; }
    const DataTypePtr & getReturnType() const override { return return_type; }

    ExecutableFunctionPtr prepare(const Block & /*sample_block*/) const override
    {
        return std::make_shared<ExecutableFunctionTiDBCast<>>(
            prepare(getArgumentTypes()[0], getReturnType()),
            name,
            in_union,
            tidb_tp,
            context);
    }

    String getName() const override { return name; }

    bool hasInformationAboutMonotonicity() const override
    {
        //return static_cast<bool>(monotonicity_for_range);
        return false;
    }

    Monotonicity getMonotonicityForRange(const IDataType & type, const Field & left, const Field & right) const override
    {
        return monotonicity_for_range(type, left, right);
    }

    // rule: from_scale_prec <= to_decimal_prec
    template <typename FromDataType>
    static bool canSkipCheckOverflowForDecimal(
        DataTypePtr from_type,
        PrecType to_decimal_prec,
        ScaleType to_decimal_scale)
    {
        constexpr bool avoid_truncate_from_value = false;
        const PrecType from_scaled_prec
            = getMinPrecForHoldingFromValue<FromDataType>(from_type, to_decimal_scale, avoid_truncate_from_value);
        return from_scaled_prec <= to_decimal_prec;
    }

private:
    const Context & context;
    const char * name;
    MonotonicityForRange monotonicity_for_range;

    DataTypes argument_types;
    DataTypePtr return_type;

    bool in_union;
    const tipb::FieldType & tidb_tp;

    template <typename FromDataType>
    static bool getMinPrecForHoldingInteger(
        DataTypePtr from_type,
        ScaleType to_decimal_scale,
        PrecType & from_scaled_prec)
    {
        const auto f = [&from_scaled_prec, to_decimal_scale](const auto &, bool) -> bool {
            using FromFieldType = typename FromDataType::FieldType;
            // This is required because other types(like Float32) don't have template specialization for IntPrec.
            if constexpr (std::is_integral_v<FromFieldType>)
            {
                from_scaled_prec = IntPrec<FromFieldType>::prec + to_decimal_scale;
            }
            else
            {
                // Cannot reach here. castTypeToEither will return false directly.
                __builtin_unreachable();
                (void)from_scaled_prec;
                (void)to_decimal_scale;
            }
            return true;
        };

        return castTypeToEither<
            DataTypeUInt8,
            DataTypeUInt16,
            DataTypeUInt32,
            DataTypeUInt64,
            DataTypeInt8,
            DataTypeInt16,
            DataTypeInt32,
            DataTypeInt64,
            DataTypeEnum8,
            DataTypeEnum16>(from_type.get(), f);
    }

    static PrecType getMinPrecForHoldingDecimalInternal(
        PrecType from_prec,
        ScaleType from_scale,
        ScaleType to_scale,
        bool avoid_truncate_from_value)
    {
        Int64 scale_diff = static_cast<Int64>(to_scale) - static_cast<Int64>(from_scale);
        if (scale_diff < 0)
        {
            if (avoid_truncate_from_value)
                scale_diff = 0;
            else
                ++scale_diff;
        }
        return from_prec + scale_diff;
    }

    static bool getMinPrecForHoldingDatetime(
        DataTypePtr from_type,
        ScaleType to_decimal_scale,
        bool avoid_truncate_from_value,
        PrecType & from_scaled_prec)
    {
        if (const auto * datetime_type = checkAndGetDataType<DataTypeMyDateTime>(from_type.get()))
        {
            const auto fsp = datetime_type->getFraction();
            if (fsp > 0)
            {
                // Treat datetime(fsp) as decimal(20, 6).
                // Max value of datetime time is '9999-12-31 23:59:59.999999',
                // which will be treated as 99991231235959.999999 when doing cast,
                // so here we use 20 as its precision and 6 as its scale.
                from_scaled_prec
                    = getMinPrecForHoldingDecimalInternal(20, 6, to_decimal_scale, avoid_truncate_from_value);
            }
            else
            {
                // Max value of datetime time is '9999-12-31 23:59:59', which will be treated as 99991231235959.
                // So treat it as a int value whose precision is 14.
                assert(fsp == 0);
                from_scaled_prec = 14 + to_decimal_scale;
            }
            return true;
        }
        return false;
    }

    static bool getMinPrecForHoldingDecimal(
        DataTypePtr from_type,
        ScaleType to_decimal_scale,
        bool avoid_truncate_from_value,
        PrecType & from_scaled_prec)
    {
        return castTypeToEither<DataTypeDecimal32, DataTypeDecimal64, DataTypeDecimal128, DataTypeDecimal256>(
            from_type.get(),
            [to_decimal_scale, avoid_truncate_from_value, &from_scaled_prec](const auto & from_type_ptr, bool) {
                from_scaled_prec = getMinPrecForHoldingDecimalInternal(
                    from_type_ptr.getPrec(),
                    from_type_ptr.getScale(),
                    to_decimal_scale,
                    avoid_truncate_from_value);
                return true;
            });
    }

    // Cast optimization doesn't handle float/string/duration for now, so return a max prec value.
    static bool getMinPrecForHoldingOtherTypes(DataTypePtr from_type, PrecType & from_scaled_prec)
    {
        return castTypeToEither<DataTypeFloat32, DataTypeFloat64, DataTypeString, DataTypeMyDuration>(
            from_type.get(),
            [&from_scaled_prec](const auto &, bool) {
                from_scaled_prec = std::numeric_limits<PrecType>::max();
                return true;
            });
    }

    // The core function of the optimizations of TiDBConvertToDecimal. The basic idea has already described above.
    // avoid_truncate_from_value:
    //  1. True when determining CastInternalType to avoid truncating from_int_val when static_cast it to CastInternalType.
    //     Because it needs to hold both from_int_value and the result of multiplication(division when scale_diff is negative) of from_int_val and scale_mul.
    //     So if scale_diff is negative, we should reset scale_diff as zero to avoid from_int_value is truncated unexpectedly.
    //  2. False when determining if can_skip_overflow_check. Also the scale_diff should plus 1 if it's negative,
    //     Such as cast(99.9999 as decimal(4, 2)), after division, the internal int value of cast result is 10000 instead of 9999,
    //     because we need to round up during cast. In this case, overflow happens.
    //     So we plus 1 to scale_diff(check getMinPrecForHoldingDecimalInternal).
    //     Then the rule will be from_prec + scale_diff + 1 <= to_prec when scale_diff < 0.
    template <typename FromDataType>
    static PrecType getMinPrecForHoldingFromValue(
        DataTypePtr from_type,
        ScaleType to_decimal_scale,
        bool avoid_truncate_from_value)
    {
        PrecType from_scaled_prec = std::numeric_limits<PrecType>::max();

        if (getMinPrecForHoldingInteger<FromDataType>(from_type, to_decimal_scale, from_scaled_prec))
        {
            // cast(int/enum as decimal)
        }
        else if (checkDataType<DataTypeMyDate>(from_type.get()))
        {
            // cast(date as decimal)
            // The max value of date type is '9999-12-31', which will be treated as 99991231 when cast it as decimal,
            // so we use 8 as its precision.
            from_scaled_prec = 8 + to_decimal_scale;
        }
        else if (getMinPrecForHoldingDatetime(from_type, to_decimal_scale, avoid_truncate_from_value, from_scaled_prec))
        {
            // cast(datetime as decimal)
        }
        else if (getMinPrecForHoldingDecimal(from_type, to_decimal_scale, avoid_truncate_from_value, from_scaled_prec))
        {
            // cast(decimal as decimal)
        }
        else if (getMinPrecForHoldingOtherTypes(from_type, from_scaled_prec))
        {
            // cast(float/string as decimal); cast duration to decimal not pushed down for now.
        }
        else
        {
            __builtin_unreachable();
        }
        return from_scaled_prec;
    }

    // Determine CastInternalType template argument for TiDBConvertToDecimal,
    // which is used as the type in the multiplication/division of from_int_val and scale_mul.
    template <typename FromDataType, typename ToDataType, bool return_nullable>
    WrapperType createWrapperForDecimal(const DataTypePtr & from_type, const ToDataType * decimal_type) const
    {
        const bool avoid_truncate_from_value = true;
        PrecType from_scaled_prec = getMinPrecForHoldingFromValue<FromDataType>(
            from_type,
            decimal_type->getScale(),
            avoid_truncate_from_value);
        const bool can_skip = canSkipCheckOverflowForDecimal<FromDataType>(
            from_type,
            decimal_type->getPrec(),
            decimal_type->getScale());
        if (!can_skip)
        {
            // If cannot skip overflow check, we should use int type that can hold both scaled_val and max_val.
            from_scaled_prec = std::max(from_scaled_prec, decimal_type->getPrec());
        }

        // Here we minus 1 to IntPrec::prec to avoid potential overflow.
        // IntPrec denotes the minimum precision of decimals to hold a specific integer type.
        // However, not all decimals with such precision could be held by this integer type.
        // This could happen when calculating the max_value and the multiplication of from_int_val and scale_mul.
        if (from_scaled_prec <= IntPrec<Int32>::prec - 1)
        {
            return createWrapperForDecimal<FromDataType, ToDataType, return_nullable, Int32>(decimal_type, can_skip);
        }
        else if (from_scaled_prec <= IntPrec<Int64>::prec - 1)
        {
            return createWrapperForDecimal<FromDataType, ToDataType, return_nullable, Int64>(decimal_type, can_skip);
        }
        else if (from_scaled_prec <= IntPrec<Int128>::prec - 1)
        {
            return createWrapperForDecimal<FromDataType, ToDataType, return_nullable, Int128>(decimal_type, can_skip);
        }
        else if (from_scaled_prec <= IntPrec<Int256>::prec - 1)
        {
            return createWrapperForDecimal<FromDataType, ToDataType, return_nullable, Int256>(decimal_type, can_skip);
        }
        else
        {
            return createWrapperForDecimal<FromDataType, ToDataType, return_nullable, Int512>(decimal_type, can_skip);
        }
    }

    // Determine can_skip_overflow_check template argument for TiDBConvertToDecimal.
    template <typename FromDataType, typename ToDataType, bool return_nullable, typename CastInternalType>
    WrapperType createWrapperForDecimal(const ToDataType * decimal_type, bool can_skip) const
    {
        using ToFieldType = typename ToDataType::FieldType;
        PrecType prec = decimal_type->getPrec();
        ScaleType scale = decimal_type->getScale();
        if (can_skip)
        {
            return [prec, scale](
                       Block & block,
                       const ColumnNumbers & arguments,
                       const size_t result,
                       bool in_union_,
                       const tipb::FieldType & tidb_tp_,
                       const Context & context_) {
                TiDBConvertToDecimal<FromDataType, ToFieldType, return_nullable, true, CastInternalType>::execute(
                    block,
                    arguments,
                    result,
                    prec,
                    scale,
                    in_union_,
                    tidb_tp_,
                    context_);
            };
        }
        else
        {
            return [prec, scale](
                       Block & block,
                       const ColumnNumbers & arguments,
                       const size_t result,
                       bool in_union_,
                       const tipb::FieldType & tidb_tp_,
                       const Context & context_) {
                TiDBConvertToDecimal<FromDataType, ToFieldType, return_nullable, false, CastInternalType>::execute(
                    block,
                    arguments,
                    result,
                    prec,
                    scale,
                    in_union_,
                    tidb_tp_,
                    context_);
            };
        }
    }

    /// createWrapper creates lambda functions that do the real type conversion job
    template <typename FromDataType, bool return_nullable>
    WrapperType createWrapper(const DataTypePtr & from_type, const DataTypePtr & to_type) const
    {
        /// cast as int
        if (checkDataType<DataTypeUInt64>(to_type.get()))
            return [](Block & block,
                      const ColumnNumbers & arguments,
                      const size_t result,
                      bool in_union_,
                      const tipb::FieldType & tidb_tp_,
                      const Context & context_) {
                TiDBConvertToInteger<FromDataType, DataTypeUInt64, return_nullable>::execute(
                    block,
                    arguments,
                    result,
                    in_union_,
                    tidb_tp_,
                    context_);
            };
        if (checkDataType<DataTypeInt64>(to_type.get()))
            return [](Block & block,
                      const ColumnNumbers & arguments,
                      const size_t result,
                      bool in_union_,
                      const tipb::FieldType & tidb_tp_,
                      const Context & context_) {
                TiDBConvertToInteger<FromDataType, DataTypeInt64, return_nullable>::execute(
                    block,
                    arguments,
                    result,
                    in_union_,
                    tidb_tp_,
                    context_);
            };

        /// cast as decimal
        if (const auto * decimal_type = checkAndGetDataType<DataTypeDecimal32>(to_type.get()))
            return createWrapperForDecimal<FromDataType, DataTypeDecimal32, return_nullable>(from_type, decimal_type);
        if (const auto * decimal_type = checkAndGetDataType<DataTypeDecimal64>(to_type.get()))
            return createWrapperForDecimal<FromDataType, DataTypeDecimal64, return_nullable>(from_type, decimal_type);
        if (const auto * decimal_type = checkAndGetDataType<DataTypeDecimal128>(to_type.get()))
            return createWrapperForDecimal<FromDataType, DataTypeDecimal128, return_nullable>(from_type, decimal_type);
        if (const auto * decimal_type = checkAndGetDataType<DataTypeDecimal256>(to_type.get()))
            return createWrapperForDecimal<FromDataType, DataTypeDecimal256, return_nullable>(from_type, decimal_type);

        /// cast as real
        if (checkDataType<DataTypeFloat64>(to_type.get()))
            return [](Block & block,
                      const ColumnNumbers & arguments,
                      const size_t result,
                      bool in_union_,
                      const tipb::FieldType & tidb_tp_,
                      const Context & context_) {
                if (hasUnsignedFlag(tidb_tp_))
                {
                    TiDBConvertToFloat<FromDataType, DataTypeFloat64, return_nullable, true>::execute(
                        block,
                        arguments,
                        result,
                        in_union_,
                        tidb_tp_,
                        context_);
                }
                else
                {
                    TiDBConvertToFloat<FromDataType, DataTypeFloat64, return_nullable, false>::execute(
                        block,
                        arguments,
                        result,
                        in_union_,
                        tidb_tp_,
                        context_);
                }
            };
        /// cast as string
        if (checkDataType<DataTypeString>(to_type.get()))
            return [](Block & block,
                      const ColumnNumbers & arguments,
                      const size_t result,
                      bool in_union_,
                      const tipb::FieldType & tidb_tp_,
                      const Context & context_) {
                TiDBConvertToString<FromDataType, return_nullable>::execute(
                    block,
                    arguments,
                    result,
                    in_union_,
                    tidb_tp_,
                    context_);
            };
        /// cast as time
        if (checkDataType<DataTypeMyDate>(to_type.get()))
            return [](Block & block,
                      const ColumnNumbers & arguments,
                      const size_t result,
                      bool in_union_,
                      const tipb::FieldType & tidb_tp_,
                      const Context & context_) {
                TiDBConvertToTime<FromDataType, DataTypeMyDate, return_nullable>::execute(
                    block,
                    arguments,
                    result,
                    in_union_,
                    tidb_tp_,
                    context_);
            };
        if (checkDataType<DataTypeMyDateTime>(to_type.get()))
            return [](Block & block,
                      const ColumnNumbers & arguments,
                      const size_t result,
                      bool in_union_,
                      const tipb::FieldType & tidb_tp_,
                      const Context & context_) {
                TiDBConvertToTime<FromDataType, DataTypeMyDateTime, return_nullable>::execute(
                    block,
                    arguments,
                    result,
                    in_union_,
                    tidb_tp_,
                    context_);
            };

        /// cast as duration
        if (checkDataType<DataTypeMyDuration>(to_type.get()))
            return [](Block & block,
                      const ColumnNumbers & arguments,
                      const size_t result,
                      bool in_union_,
                      const tipb::FieldType & tidb_tp_,
                      const Context & context_) {
                TiDBConvertToDuration<FromDataType, DataTypeMyDuration, return_nullable>::execute(
                    block,
                    arguments,
                    result,
                    in_union_,
                    tidb_tp_,
                    context_);
            };

        // cast to json been implemented in FunctionsJson.h
        throw Exception{"tidb_cast to " + to_type->getName() + " is not supported", ErrorCodes::CANNOT_CONVERT_TYPE};
    }

    static WrapperType createIdentityWrapper(const DataTypePtr &)
    {
        return [](Block & block,
                  const ColumnNumbers & arguments,
                  const size_t result,
                  bool,
                  const tipb::FieldType &,
                  const Context &) {
            block.getByPosition(result).column = block.getByPosition(arguments.front()).column;
        };
    }

    template <bool return_nullable>
    WrapperType createWrapper(const DataTypePtr & from_type, const DataTypePtr & to_type) const
    {
        if (isIdentityCast(from_type, to_type))
            return createIdentityWrapper(from_type);
        if (checkAndGetDataType<DataTypeUInt8>(from_type.get()))
            return createWrapper<DataTypeUInt8, return_nullable>(from_type, to_type);
        if (checkAndGetDataType<DataTypeUInt16>(from_type.get()))
            return createWrapper<DataTypeUInt16, return_nullable>(from_type, to_type);
        if (checkAndGetDataType<DataTypeUInt32>(from_type.get()))
            return createWrapper<DataTypeUInt32, return_nullable>(from_type, to_type);
        if (checkAndGetDataType<DataTypeUInt64>(from_type.get()))
            return createWrapper<DataTypeUInt64, return_nullable>(from_type, to_type);
        if (checkAndGetDataType<DataTypeInt8>(from_type.get()))
            return createWrapper<DataTypeInt8, return_nullable>(from_type, to_type);
        if (checkAndGetDataType<DataTypeInt16>(from_type.get()))
            return createWrapper<DataTypeInt16, return_nullable>(from_type, to_type);
        if (checkAndGetDataType<DataTypeInt32>(from_type.get()))
            return createWrapper<DataTypeInt32, return_nullable>(from_type, to_type);
        if (checkAndGetDataType<DataTypeInt64>(from_type.get()))
            return createWrapper<DataTypeInt64, return_nullable>(from_type, to_type);
        if (checkAndGetDataType<DataTypeFloat32>(from_type.get()))
            return createWrapper<DataTypeFloat32, return_nullable>(from_type, to_type);
        if (checkAndGetDataType<DataTypeFloat64>(from_type.get()))
            return createWrapper<DataTypeFloat64, return_nullable>(from_type, to_type);
        if (checkAndGetDataType<DataTypeDecimal32>(from_type.get()))
            return createWrapper<DataTypeDecimal32, return_nullable>(from_type, to_type);
        if (checkAndGetDataType<DataTypeDecimal64>(from_type.get()))
            return createWrapper<DataTypeDecimal64, return_nullable>(from_type, to_type);
        if (checkAndGetDataType<DataTypeDecimal128>(from_type.get()))
            return createWrapper<DataTypeDecimal128, return_nullable>(from_type, to_type);
        if (checkAndGetDataType<DataTypeDecimal256>(from_type.get()))
            return createWrapper<DataTypeDecimal256, return_nullable>(from_type, to_type);
        if (checkAndGetDataType<DataTypeMyDate>(from_type.get()))
            return createWrapper<DataTypeMyDate, return_nullable>(from_type, to_type);
        if (checkAndGetDataType<DataTypeMyDateTime>(from_type.get()))
            return createWrapper<DataTypeMyDateTime, return_nullable>(from_type, to_type);
        if (checkAndGetDataType<DataTypeString>(from_type.get()))
            return createWrapper<DataTypeString, return_nullable>(from_type, to_type);
        if (checkAndGetDataType<DataTypeEnum8>(from_type.get()))
            return createWrapper<DataTypeEnum8, return_nullable>(from_type, to_type);
        if (checkAndGetDataType<DataTypeEnum16>(from_type.get()))
            return createWrapper<DataTypeEnum16, return_nullable>(from_type, to_type);
        if (checkAndGetDataType<DataTypeMyDuration>(from_type.get()))
            return createWrapper<DataTypeMyDuration, return_nullable>(from_type, to_type);

        // todo support convert to duration/json type
        throw Exception{
            "tidb_cast from " + from_type->getName() + " to " + to_type->getName() + " is not supported",
            ErrorCodes::CANNOT_CONVERT_TYPE};
    }

    static bool isIdentityCast(const DataTypePtr & from_type, const DataTypePtr & to_type)
    {
        // todo should remove !from_type->isParametric(), because when a type equals to
        //  other type, its parameter should be the same
        DataTypePtr from_inner_type = removeNullable(from_type);
        DataTypePtr to_inner_type = removeNullable(to_type);
        return !(from_type->isNullable() ^ to_type->isNullable()) && from_inner_type->equals(*to_inner_type)
            && !from_inner_type->isParametric() && !from_inner_type->isString();
    }

    WrapperType prepare(const DataTypePtr & from_type, const DataTypePtr & to_type) const
    {
        if (from_type->onlyNull())
        {
            return [](Block & block,
                      const ColumnNumbers &,
                      const size_t result,
                      bool,
                      const tipb::FieldType &,
                      const Context &) {
                auto & res = block.getByPosition(result);
                res.column = res.type->createColumnConstWithDefaultValue(block.rows())->convertToFullColumnIfConst();
            };
        }

        if (isIdentityCast(from_type, to_type))
            return createIdentityWrapper(from_type);
        DataTypePtr from_inner_type = removeNullable(from_type);
        DataTypePtr to_inner_type = removeNullable(to_type);

        auto fn_convert = createWrapper(from_inner_type, to_inner_type, to_type->isNullable());
        if (from_type->isNullable())
        {
            return [fn_convert, to_type](
                       Block & block,
                       const ColumnNumbers & arguments,
                       size_t result,
                       bool in_union_,
                       const tipb::FieldType & tidb_tp_,
                       const Context & context_) {
                const auto & from_col = block.getByPosition(arguments[0]).column;
                const auto & from_nullable_col = static_cast<const ColumnNullable &>(*from_col);
                const auto & from_null_map = from_nullable_col.getNullMapData();
                /// make sure if to_type is not nullable, then there is no null value in from_column
                if (!to_type->isNullable())
                {
                    if (!mem_utils::memoryIsZero(from_null_map.data(), from_null_map.size()))
                        throw Exception{
                            "Cannot convert NULL value to non-Nullable type",
                            ErrorCodes::CANNOT_INSERT_NULL_IN_ORDINARY_COLUMN};
                }
                Block tmp_block = createBlockWithNestedColumns(block, arguments, result);
                fn_convert(tmp_block, arguments, result, in_union_, tidb_tp_, context_);
                if (!to_type->isNullable())
                {
                    block.getByPosition(result).column = tmp_block.getByPosition(result).column;
                }
                else
                {
                    ColumnPtr result_null_map_column
                        = static_cast<const ColumnNullable &>(*tmp_block.getByPosition(result).column)
                              .getNullMapColumnPtr();
                    ColumnPtr result_not_nullable
                        = static_cast<const ColumnNullable &>(*tmp_block.getByPosition(result).column)
                              .getNestedColumnPtr();
                    size_t size = result_null_map_column->size();
                    MutableColumnPtr mutable_result_null_map_column = (*std::move(result_null_map_column)).mutate();
                    NullMap & result_null_map = static_cast<ColumnUInt8 &>(*mutable_result_null_map_column).getData();
                    for (size_t i = 0; i < size; i++)
                    {
                        if (from_null_map[i])
                            result_null_map[i] = 1;
                    }
                    result_null_map_column = std::move(mutable_result_null_map_column);
                    if (result_not_nullable->isColumnConst())
                    {
                        block.getByPosition(result).column = ColumnNullable::create(
                            result_not_nullable->convertToFullColumnIfConst(),
                            result_null_map_column);
                    }
                    else
                    {
                        block.getByPosition(result).column
                            = ColumnNullable::create(result_not_nullable, result_null_map_column);
                    }
                }
            };
        }
        else
        {
            if (isIdentityCast(from_inner_type, to_inner_type) && to_type->isNullable())
            {
                /// convert not_null type to nullable type
                return [fn_convert, to_type](
                           Block & block,
                           const ColumnNumbers & arguments,
                           size_t result,
                           bool in_union_,
                           const tipb::FieldType & tidb_tp_,
                           const Context & context_) {
                    auto & res = block.getByPosition(result);
                    const auto & ret_type = res.type;
                    const auto & nullable_type = static_cast<const DataTypeNullable &>(*ret_type);
                    const auto & nested_type = nullable_type.getNestedType();

                    Block tmp_block = block;
                    size_t tmp_res_index = tmp_block.columns();
                    tmp_block.insert({nullptr, nested_type, ""});

                    fn_convert(tmp_block, arguments, tmp_res_index, in_union_, tidb_tp_, context_);
                    /// This is a conversion from an ordinary type to a nullable type.
                    /// So we create a trivial null map.
                    ColumnPtr null_map = ColumnUInt8::create(block.rows(), 0);

                    const auto & tmp_res = tmp_block.getByPosition(tmp_res_index);
                    res.column = ColumnNullable::create(tmp_res.column, null_map);
                };
            }
            else
            {
                return fn_convert;
            }
        }
    }

    WrapperType createWrapper(const DataTypePtr & from_type, const DataTypePtr & to_type, bool return_nullable) const
    {
        if (return_nullable)
            return createWrapper<true>(from_type, to_type);
        else
            return createWrapper<false>(from_type, to_type);
    }
};

class FunctionBuilderTiDBCast : public IFunctionBuilder
{
public:
    static constexpr auto name = "tidb_cast";
    static FunctionBuilderPtr create(const Context & context)
    {
        if (!context.getDAGContext())
        {
            throw Exception("DAGContext should not be nullptr.", ErrorCodes::LOGICAL_ERROR);
        }
        return std::make_shared<FunctionBuilderTiDBCast>(context);
    }

    explicit FunctionBuilderTiDBCast(const Context & context)
        : context(context)
    {}

    String getName() const override { return name; }

    size_t getNumberOfArguments() const override { return 2; }
    void setInUnion(bool in_union_) { in_union = in_union_; }
    void setTiDBFieldType(const tipb::FieldType & tidb_tp_) { tidb_tp = tidb_tp_; }
    bool useDefaultImplementationForNulls() const override { return false; }


protected:
    FunctionBasePtr buildImpl(
        const ColumnsWithTypeAndName & arguments,
        const DataTypePtr & return_type,
        const TiDB::TiDBCollatorPtr &) const override;

    // use the last const string column's value as the return type name, in string representation like "Float64"
    DataTypePtr getReturnTypeImpl(const ColumnsWithTypeAndName & arguments) const override
    {
        const auto * type_col = checkAndGetColumnConst<ColumnString>(arguments.back().column.get());
        if (!type_col)
            throw Exception(
                "Second argument to " + getName() + " must be a constant string describing type",
                ErrorCodes::ILLEGAL_TYPE_OF_ARGUMENT);

        return DataTypeFactory::instance().get(type_col->getValue<String>());
    }

private:
    // todo support monotonicity
    //template <typename DataType>
    //static auto monotonicityForType(const DataType * const)
    //{
    //    return FunctionTo<DataType>::Type::Monotonic::get;
    //}

    static MonotonicityForRange getMonotonicityInformation(const DataTypePtr &, const IDataType *)
    {
        /*
        if (const auto type = checkAndGetDataType<DataTypeUInt8>(to_type))
            return monotonicityForType(type);
        else if (const auto type = checkAndGetDataType<DataTypeUInt16>(to_type))
            return monotonicityForType(type);
        else if (const auto type = checkAndGetDataType<DataTypeUInt32>(to_type))
            return monotonicityForType(type);
        else if (const auto type = checkAndGetDataType<DataTypeUInt64>(to_type))
            return monotonicityForType(type);
        else if (const auto type = checkAndGetDataType<DataTypeInt8>(to_type))
            return monotonicityForType(type);
        else if (const auto type = checkAndGetDataType<DataTypeInt16>(to_type))
            return monotonicityForType(type);
        else if (const auto type = checkAndGetDataType<DataTypeInt32>(to_type))
            return monotonicityForType(type);
        else if (const auto type = checkAndGetDataType<DataTypeInt64>(to_type))
            return monotonicityForType(type);
        else if (const auto type = checkAndGetDataType<DataTypeFloat32>(to_type))
            return monotonicityForType(type);
        else if (const auto type = checkAndGetDataType<DataTypeFloat64>(to_type))
            return monotonicityForType(type);
        else if (const auto type = checkAndGetDataType<DataTypeDate>(to_type))
            return monotonicityForType(type);
        else if (const auto type = checkAndGetDataType<DataTypeDateTime>(to_type))
            return monotonicityForType(type);
        else if (const auto type = checkAndGetDataType<DataTypeString>(to_type))
            return monotonicityForType(type);
        else if (from_type->isEnum())
        {
            if (const auto type = checkAndGetDataType<DataTypeEnum8>(to_type))
                return monotonicityForType(type);
            else if (const auto type = checkAndGetDataType<DataTypeEnum16>(to_type))
                return monotonicityForType(type);
        }
         */
        return {};
    }

    const Context & context;
    bool in_union;
    tipb::FieldType tidb_tp;
};

} // namespace DB