diff --git a/common/paths/pathparser.go b/common/paths/pathparser.go
index e376a6677d1..842d9307b06 100644
--- a/common/paths/pathparser.go
+++ b/common/paths/pathparser.go
@@ -361,6 +361,15 @@ func (p *Path) PathNoIdentifier() string {
 	return p.base(false, false)
 }
 
+// PathRel returns the path relativeto the given owner.
+func (p *Path) PathRel(owner *Path) string {
+	ob := owner.Base()
+	if !strings.HasSuffix(ob, "/") {
+		ob += "/"
+	}
+	return strings.TrimPrefix(p.Path(), ob)
+}
+
 // BaseRel returns the base path relative to the given owner.
 func (p *Path) BaseRel(owner *Path) string {
 	ob := owner.Base()
@@ -378,6 +387,11 @@ func (p *Path) Base() string {
 	return p.base(!p.isContentPage(), p.IsBundle())
 }
 
+// BaseNoLeadingSlash returns the base path without the leading slash.
+func (p *Path) BaseNoLeadingSlash() string {
+	return p.Base()[1:]
+}
+
 func (p *Path) base(preserveExt, isBundle bool) string {
 	if len(p.identifiers) == 0 {
 		return p.norm(p.s)
diff --git a/common/paths/pathparser_test.go b/common/paths/pathparser_test.go
index 8c01e1a087c..3546b66050e 100644
--- a/common/paths/pathparser_test.go
+++ b/common/paths/pathparser_test.go
@@ -121,6 +121,7 @@ func TestParse(t *testing.T) {
 			func(c *qt.C, p *Path) {
 				c.Assert(p.Name(), qt.Equals, "b.md")
 				c.Assert(p.Base(), qt.Equals, "/a/b")
+				c.Assert(p.BaseNoLeadingSlash(), qt.Equals, "a/b")
 				c.Assert(p.Section(), qt.Equals, "a")
 				c.Assert(p.BaseNameNoIdentifier(), qt.Equals, "b")
 
@@ -160,6 +161,7 @@ func TestParse(t *testing.T) {
 				c.Assert(p.NameNoLang(), qt.Equals, "b.a.b.txt")
 				c.Assert(p.Identifiers(), qt.DeepEquals, []string{"txt", "no"})
 				c.Assert(p.Base(), qt.Equals, "/a/b.a.b.txt")
+				c.Assert(p.BaseNoLeadingSlash(), qt.Equals, "a/b.a.b.txt")
 				c.Assert(p.PathNoLang(), qt.Equals, "/a/b.a.b.txt")
 				c.Assert(p.Ext(), qt.Equals, "txt")
 				c.Assert(p.PathNoIdentifier(), qt.Equals, "/a/b.a.b")
diff --git a/config/commonConfig.go b/config/commonConfig.go
index b10f7dcead4..6ca061093c5 100644
--- a/config/commonConfig.go
+++ b/config/commonConfig.go
@@ -94,7 +94,13 @@ var defaultBuild = BuildConfig{
 
 // BuildConfig holds some build related configuration.
 type BuildConfig struct {
-	UseResourceCacheWhen string // never, fallback, always. Default is fallback
+	// When to use the resource file cache.
+	// One of never, fallback, always. Default is fallback
+	UseResourceCacheWhen string
+
+	// When enabled, will duplicate bundled resource files across languages that
+	// doesn't have a translated version.
+	DuplicateResourceFiles bool
 
 	// When enabled, will collect and write a hugo_stats.json with some build
 	// related aggregated data (e.g. CSS class names).
diff --git a/hugolib/content_map.go b/hugolib/content_map.go
index 8322b6958ce..95c1e860079 100644
--- a/hugolib/content_map.go
+++ b/hugolib/content_map.go
@@ -58,6 +58,19 @@ type resourceSource struct {
 	r resource.Resource
 }
 
+func (r resourceSource) clone() *resourceSource {
+	r.r = nil
+	return &r
+}
+
+func (r *resourceSource) LangIndex() int {
+	if r.r != nil && r.isPage() {
+		return r.r.(*pageState).s.languagei
+	}
+
+	return r.fi.Meta().LangIndex
+}
+
 func (r *resourceSource) MarkStale() {
 	resource.MarkStale(r.r)
 }
@@ -151,16 +164,6 @@ func (m *pageMap) AddFi(fi hugofs.FileMetaInfo) error {
 		commit := tree.Lock(true)
 		defer commit()
 
-		var resources resourceSources
-		n, ok := tree.GetRaw(key)
-
-		if ok {
-			resources = n.(resourceSources)
-		} else {
-			resources = make(resourceSources, len(m.s.h.Sites))
-			tree.Insert(key, resources)
-		}
-
 		r := func() (hugio.ReadSeekCloser, error) {
 			return fim.Meta().Open()
 		}
@@ -184,11 +187,7 @@ func (m *pageMap) AddFi(fi hugofs.FileMetaInfo) error {
 			rs = &resourceSource{path: pi, opener: r, fi: fim}
 		}
 
-		i := fim.Meta().LangIndex
-		if r := resources[i]; r != nil && r.r != nil {
-			resource.MarkStale(r.r)
-		}
-		resources[i] = rs
+		tree.InsertIntoValuesDimension(key, rs)
 
 		return nil
 	}
diff --git a/hugolib/content_map_page.go b/hugolib/content_map_page.go
index 469c0c1a8ff..2f8b9f88fb5 100644
--- a/hugolib/content_map_page.go
+++ b/hugolib/content_map_page.go
@@ -101,10 +101,6 @@ type pageMap struct {
 	cfg contentMapConfig
 }
 
-const (
-	pageTreeDimensionLanguage = iota
-)
-
 // pageTrees holds pages and resources in a tree structure for all sites/languages.
 // Eeach site gets its own tree set via the Shape method.
 type pageTrees struct {
@@ -210,7 +206,7 @@ func (m *pageMap) forEachPage(include predicate.P[*pageState], fn func(p *pageSt
 	w := &doctree.NodeShiftTreeWalker[contentNodeI]{
 		Tree:     m.treePages,
 		LockType: doctree.LockTypeRead,
-		Handle: func(key string, n contentNodeI) (bool, error) {
+		Handle: func(key string, n contentNodeI, match doctree.DimensionFlag) (bool, error) {
 			if p, ok := n.(*pageState); ok && include(p) {
 				if terminate, err := fn(p); terminate || err != nil {
 					return terminate, err
@@ -237,7 +233,7 @@ func (m *pageMap) forEeachPageIncludingBundledPages(include predicate.P[*pageSta
 	w := &doctree.NodeShiftTreeWalker[contentNodeI]{
 		Tree:     m.treeResources,
 		LockType: doctree.LockTypeRead,
-		Handle: func(key string, n contentNodeI) (bool, error) {
+		Handle: func(key string, n contentNodeI, match doctree.DimensionFlag) (bool, error) {
 			if rs, ok := n.(*resourceSource); ok {
 				if p, ok := rs.r.(*pageState); ok && include(p) {
 					if terminate, err := fn(p); terminate || err != nil {
@@ -277,7 +273,7 @@ func (m *pageMap) getPagesInSection(q pageMapQueryPagesInSection) page.Pages {
 		w := &doctree.NodeShiftTreeWalker[contentNodeI]{
 			Tree:   m.treePages,
 			Prefix: prefix,
-			Handle: func(key string, n contentNodeI) (bool, error) {
+			Handle: func(key string, n contentNodeI, match doctree.DimensionFlag) (bool, error) {
 				if q.Recursive {
 					if p, ok := n.(*pageState); ok && include(p) {
 						pas = append(pas, p)
@@ -398,7 +394,7 @@ func (m *pageMap) forEachResourceInPage(
 	ps *pageState,
 	lockType doctree.LockType,
 	exact bool,
-	handle func(resourceKey string, n contentNodeI) (bool, error),
+	handle func(resourceKey string, n contentNodeI, match doctree.DimensionFlag) (bool, error),
 ) error {
 	keyPage := ps.Path()
 	if keyPage == "/" {
@@ -414,7 +410,7 @@ func (m *pageMap) forEachResourceInPage(
 		Exact:    exact,
 	}
 
-	rw.Handle = func(resourceKey string, n contentNodeI) (bool, error) {
+	rw.Handle = func(resourceKey string, n contentNodeI, match doctree.DimensionFlag) (bool, error) {
 		if isBranch {
 			ownerKey, _ := m.treePages.LongestPrefixAll(resourceKey)
 			if ownerKey != keyPage {
@@ -423,7 +419,7 @@ func (m *pageMap) forEachResourceInPage(
 				return false, nil
 			}
 		}
-		return handle(resourceKey, n)
+		return handle(resourceKey, n, match)
 	}
 
 	return rw.Walk(context.Background())
@@ -431,7 +427,7 @@ func (m *pageMap) forEachResourceInPage(
 
 func (m *pageMap) getResourcesForPage(ps *pageState) (resource.Resources, error) {
 	var res resource.Resources
-	m.forEachResourceInPage(ps, doctree.LockTypeNone, false, func(resourceKey string, n contentNodeI) (bool, error) {
+	m.forEachResourceInPage(ps, doctree.LockTypeNone, false, func(resourceKey string, n contentNodeI, match doctree.DimensionFlag) (bool, error) {
 		rs := n.(*resourceSource)
 		if rs.r != nil {
 			res = append(res, rs.r)
@@ -575,9 +571,11 @@ func (n contentNodeIs) MarkStale() {
 	}
 }
 
-type contentNodeShifter struct{}
+type contentNodeShifter struct {
+	numLanguages int
+}
 
-func (s *contentNodeShifter) Delete(n contentNodeI, dimension []int) (bool, bool) {
+func (s *contentNodeShifter) Delete(n contentNodeI, dimension doctree.Dimension) (bool, bool) {
 	lidx := dimension[0]
 	switch v := n.(type) {
 	case contentNodeIs:
@@ -604,6 +602,9 @@ func (s *contentNodeShifter) Delete(n contentNodeI, dimension []int) (bool, bool
 			}
 		}
 		return wasDeleted, isEmpty
+	case *resourceSource:
+		resource.MarkStale(v)
+		return true, true
 	case *pageState:
 		resource.MarkStale(v)
 		return true, true
@@ -612,40 +613,52 @@ func (s *contentNodeShifter) Delete(n contentNodeI, dimension []int) (bool, bool
 	}
 }
 
-func (s *contentNodeShifter) Shift(n contentNodeI, dimension []int, exact bool) (contentNodeI, bool) {
+func (s *contentNodeShifter) Shift(n contentNodeI, dimension doctree.Dimension, exact bool) (contentNodeI, bool, doctree.DimensionFlag) {
 	lidx := dimension[0]
+	// How accurate is the match.
+	accuracy := doctree.DimensionLanguage
 	switch v := n.(type) {
 	case contentNodeIs:
 		if len(v) == 0 {
 			panic("empty contentNodeIs")
 		}
 		vv := v[lidx]
-		return vv, vv != nil
+		if vv != nil {
+			return vv, true, accuracy
+		}
+		return nil, false, 0
 	case resourceSources:
 		vv := v[lidx]
 		if vv != nil {
-			return vv, true
+			return vv, true, doctree.DimensionLanguage
 		}
 		if exact {
-			return nil, false
+			return nil, false, 0
 		}
 		// For non content resources, pick the first match.
 		for _, vv := range v {
 			if vv != nil {
 				if vv.isPage() {
-					return nil, false
+					return nil, false, 0
 				}
-				return vv, true
+				return vv, true, 0
 			}
 		}
+	case *resourceSource:
+		if v.LangIndex() == lidx {
+			return v, true, doctree.DimensionLanguage
+		}
+		if !v.isPage() && !exact {
+			return v, true, 0
+		}
 	case *pageState:
 		if v.s.languagei == lidx {
-			return n, true
+			return n, true, doctree.DimensionLanguage
 		}
 	default:
 		panic(fmt.Sprintf("unknown type %T", n))
 	}
-	return nil, false
+	return nil, false, 0
 }
 
 func (s *contentNodeShifter) All(n contentNodeI) []contentNodeI {
@@ -665,23 +678,85 @@ func (s *contentNodeShifter) Dimension(n contentNodeI, d int) []contentNodeI {
 	return s.All(n)
 }
 
-func (s *contentNodeShifter) Insert(old, new contentNodeI) (contentNodeI, bool) {
-	newp, ok := new.(*pageState)
-	if !ok {
-		panic(fmt.Sprintf("unknown type %T", new))
+func (s *contentNodeShifter) InsertInto(old, new contentNodeI, dimension doctree.Dimension) contentNodeI {
+	langi := dimension[doctree.DimensionLanguage.Index()]
+	switch vv := old.(type) {
+	case *pageState:
+		newp, ok := new.(*pageState)
+		if !ok {
+			panic(fmt.Sprintf("unknown type %T", new))
+		}
+		if vv.s.languagei == newp.s.languagei && newp.s.languagei == langi {
+			return new
+		}
+		is := make(contentNodeIs, s.numLanguages)
+		is[vv.s.languagei] = old
+		is[langi] = new
+		return is
+	case contentNodeIs:
+		vv[langi] = new
+		return vv
+	case resourceSources:
+		vv[langi] = new.(*resourceSource)
+		return vv
+	case *resourceSource:
+		newp, ok := new.(*resourceSource)
+		if !ok {
+			panic(fmt.Sprintf("unknown type %T", new))
+		}
+		if vv.LangIndex() == newp.LangIndex() && newp.LangIndex() == langi {
+			return new
+		}
+		rs := make(resourceSources, s.numLanguages)
+		rs[vv.LangIndex()] = vv
+		rs[langi] = newp
+		return rs
+
+	default:
+		panic(fmt.Sprintf("unknown type %T", old))
 	}
+}
+
+func (s *contentNodeShifter) Insert(old, new contentNodeI) contentNodeI {
 	switch vv := old.(type) {
 	case *pageState:
-		if vv.Lang() == newp.Lang() {
-			return new, true
+		newp, ok := new.(*pageState)
+		if !ok {
+			panic(fmt.Sprintf("unknown type %T", new))
+		}
+		if vv.s.languagei == newp.s.languagei {
+			return new
 		}
-		is := make(contentNodeIs, len(newp.s.h.Sites))
+		is := make(contentNodeIs, s.numLanguages)
 		is[newp.s.languagei] = new
 		is[vv.s.languagei] = old
-		return is, true
+		return is
 	case contentNodeIs:
+		newp, ok := new.(*pageState)
+		if !ok {
+			panic(fmt.Sprintf("unknown type %T", new))
+		}
 		vv[newp.s.languagei] = new
-		return vv, true
+		return vv
+	case *resourceSource:
+		newp, ok := new.(*resourceSource)
+		if !ok {
+			panic(fmt.Sprintf("unknown type %T", new))
+		}
+		if vv.LangIndex() == newp.LangIndex() {
+			return new
+		}
+		rs := make(resourceSources, s.numLanguages)
+		rs[newp.LangIndex()] = newp
+		rs[vv.LangIndex()] = vv
+		return rs
+	case resourceSources:
+		newp, ok := new.(*resourceSource)
+		if !ok {
+			panic(fmt.Sprintf("unknown type %T", new))
+		}
+		vv[newp.LangIndex()] = newp
+		return vv
 	default:
 		panic(fmt.Sprintf("unknown type %T", old))
 	}
@@ -726,7 +801,7 @@ func newPageMap(i int, s *Site, mcache *dynacache.Cache, pageTrees *pageTrees) *
 			w := &doctree.NodeShiftTreeWalker[contentNodeI]{
 				Tree:     m.treePages,
 				LockType: doctree.LockTypeRead,
-				Handle: func(s string, n contentNodeI) (bool, error) {
+				Handle: func(s string, n contentNodeI, match doctree.DimensionFlag) (bool, error) {
 					p := n.(*pageState)
 					if p.File() != nil {
 						add(p.File().FileInfo().Meta().PathInfo.BaseNameNoIdentifier(), p)
@@ -791,7 +866,7 @@ func (m *pageMap) debugPrint(prefix string, maxLevel int, w io.Writer) {
 	resourceWalker := pageWalker.Extend()
 	resourceWalker.Tree = m.treeResources
 
-	pageWalker.Handle = func(keyPage string, n contentNodeI) (bool, error) {
+	pageWalker.Handle = func(keyPage string, n contentNodeI, match doctree.DimensionFlag) (bool, error) {
 		level := strings.Count(keyPage, "/")
 		if level > maxLevel {
 			return false, nil
@@ -820,7 +895,7 @@ func (m *pageMap) debugPrint(prefix string, maxLevel int, w io.Writer) {
 		prevKey = keyPage
 		resourceWalker.Prefix = keyPage + "/"
 
-		resourceWalker.Handle = func(ss string, n contentNodeI) (bool, error) {
+		resourceWalker.Handle = func(ss string, n contentNodeI, match doctree.DimensionFlag) (bool, error) {
 			if isBranch {
 				ownerKey, _ := pageWalker.Tree.LongestPrefix(ss, true, nil)
 				if ownerKey != keyPage {
@@ -1046,7 +1121,7 @@ func (sa *sitePagesAssembler) applyAggregates() error {
 	rw.Tree = sa.pageMap.treeResources
 	sa.lastmod = time.Time{}
 
-	pw.Handle = func(keyPage string, n contentNodeI) (bool, error) {
+	pw.Handle = func(keyPage string, n contentNodeI, match doctree.DimensionFlag) (bool, error) {
 		pageBundle := n.(*pageState)
 
 		if pageBundle.Kind() == kinds.KindTerm {
@@ -1135,7 +1210,7 @@ func (sa *sitePagesAssembler) applyAggregates() error {
 		isBranch := n.isContentNodeBranch()
 		rw.Prefix = keyPage + "/"
 
-		rw.Handle = func(resourceKey string, n contentNodeI) (bool, error) {
+		rw.Handle = func(resourceKey string, n contentNodeI, match doctree.DimensionFlag) (bool, error) {
 			if isBranch {
 				ownerKey, _ := pw.Tree.LongestPrefix(resourceKey, true, nil)
 				if ownerKey != keyPage {
@@ -1197,7 +1272,7 @@ func (sa *sitePagesAssembler) applyAggregatesToTaxonomiesAndTerms() error {
 			Prefix:      key, // We also want to include the root taxonomy nodes, so no trailing slash.
 			LockType:    doctree.LockTypeRead,
 			WalkContext: walkContext,
-			Handle: func(s string, n contentNodeI) (bool, error) {
+			Handle: func(s string, n contentNodeI, match doctree.DimensionFlag) (bool, error) {
 				p := n.(*pageState)
 				if p.Kind() != kinds.KindTerm {
 					// The other kinds were handled in applyAggregates.
@@ -1283,7 +1358,7 @@ func (sa *sitePagesAssembler) assembleTermsAndTranslations() error {
 	w := &doctree.NodeShiftTreeWalker[contentNodeI]{
 		Tree:     pages,
 		LockType: lockType,
-		Handle: func(s string, n contentNodeI) (bool, error) {
+		Handle: func(s string, n contentNodeI, match doctree.DimensionFlag) (bool, error) {
 			ps := n.(*pageState)
 
 			if ps.m.noLink() {
@@ -1333,7 +1408,7 @@ func (sa *sitePagesAssembler) assembleTermsAndTranslations() error {
 						if err != nil {
 							return false, err
 						}
-						pages.Insert(pi.Base(), n)
+						pages.InsertIntoValuesDimension(pi.Base(), n)
 						term = pages.Get(pi.Base())
 					}
 
@@ -1359,44 +1434,65 @@ func (sa *sitePagesAssembler) assembleTermsAndTranslations() error {
 }
 
 func (sa *sitePagesAssembler) assembleResources() error {
-	pages := sa.pageMap.treePages
+	pagesTree := sa.pageMap.treePages
+	resourcesTree := sa.pageMap.treeResources
 
 	lockType := doctree.LockTypeWrite
 	w := &doctree.NodeShiftTreeWalker[contentNodeI]{
-		Tree:     pages,
+		Tree:     pagesTree,
 		LockType: lockType,
-		Handle: func(s string, n contentNodeI) (bool, error) {
+		Handle: func(s string, n contentNodeI, match doctree.DimensionFlag) (bool, error) {
 			ps := n.(*pageState)
 
 			// Prepare resources for this page.
 			ps.shiftToOutputFormat(true, 0)
 			targetPaths := ps.targetPaths()
+			baseTarget := targetPaths.SubResourceBaseTarget
+			duplicateResourceFiles := true
+			if ps.s.ContentSpec.Converters.IsGoldmark(ps.m.markup) {
+				duplicateResourceFiles = ps.s.ContentSpec.Converters.GetMarkupConfig().Goldmark.DuplicateResourceFiles
+			}
+
 			sa.pageMap.forEachResourceInPage(
 				ps, lockType,
-				true, // No shifting, we only want resources for this dimension.
-				func(resourceKey string, n contentNodeI) (bool, error) {
+				!duplicateResourceFiles, // wheter to exclude alternative language matches.
+				func(resourceKey string, n contentNodeI, match doctree.DimensionFlag) (bool, error) {
 					rs := n.(*resourceSource)
+					if !match.Has(doctree.DimensionLanguage) {
+						// We got an alternative language version.
+						// Clone this and insert it into the tree.
+						rs = rs.clone()
+						resourcesTree.InsertIntoCurrentDimension(resourceKey, rs)
+					}
 					if rs.r != nil {
 						return false, nil
 					}
+
+					relPathOriginal := rs.path.PathRel(ps.m.pathInfo)
 					relPath := rs.path.BaseRel(ps.m.pathInfo)
-					baseTarget := targetPaths.SubResourceBaseTarget
+
 					var targetBasePaths []string
 					if ps.s.Conf.IsMultihost() {
+						baseTarget = targetPaths.SubResourceBaseLink
 						// In multihost we need to publish to the lang sub folder,
 						// and also to all languages that does not have this bundled resource.
-						targetBasePaths = []string{ps.Lang()}
-						// TODO(bep) improve.
-						var sources resourceSources
-						if v, ok := sa.pageMap.treeResources.GetRaw(resourceKey); ok {
-							sources = v.(resourceSources)
-							for i, s := range sources {
-								if s == nil {
-									targetBasePaths = append(targetBasePaths, ps.s.h.Sites[i].Lang())
+						targetBasePaths = []string{ps.s.GetTargetLanguageBasePath()}
+						if v, ok := resourcesTree.GetRaw(resourceKey); ok {
+							switch vv := v.(type) {
+							case resourceSources:
+								for i, s := range vv {
+									if s == nil {
+										targetBasePaths = append(targetBasePaths, ps.s.h.Sites[i].GetTargetLanguageBasePath())
+									}
+								}
+							case *resourceSource:
+								for i, s := range ps.s.h.Sites {
+									if i != vv.LangIndex() {
+										targetBasePaths = append(targetBasePaths, s.GetTargetLanguageBasePath())
+									}
 								}
 							}
 						}
-						baseTarget = targetPaths.SubResourceBaseLink
 
 					}
 
@@ -1404,11 +1500,12 @@ func (sa *sitePagesAssembler) assembleResources() error {
 						OpenReadSeekCloser:   rs.opener,
 						Path:                 rs.path,
 						GroupIdentity:        rs.path,
-						TargetPath:           relPath,
+						TargetPath:           relPathOriginal, // Use the original path for the target path, so the links can be guessed.
 						TargetBasePaths:      targetBasePaths,
 						BasePathRelPermalink: targetPaths.SubResourceBaseLink,
 						BasePathTargetPath:   baseTarget,
 						Name:                 relPath,
+						NameOriginal:         relPathOriginal,
 						LazyPublish:          !ps.m.buildConfig.PublishResources,
 					}
 					r, err := ps.m.s.ResourceSpec.NewResource(rd)
@@ -1467,7 +1564,7 @@ func (sa *sitePagesAssembler) removeShouldNotBuild() error {
 	w := &doctree.NodeShiftTreeWalker[contentNodeI]{
 		LockType: doctree.LockTypeRead,
 		Tree:     sa.pageMap.treePages,
-		Handle: func(key string, n contentNodeI) (bool, error) {
+		Handle: func(key string, n contentNodeI, match doctree.DimensionFlag) (bool, error) {
 			p := n.(*pageState)
 			if !s.shouldBuild(p) {
 				switch p.Kind() {
@@ -1524,7 +1621,7 @@ func (sa *sitePagesAssembler) addStandalonePages() error {
 
 		p, _ := s.h.newPage(m)
 
-		tree.Insert(key, p)
+		tree.InsertIntoValuesDimension(key, p)
 	}
 
 	addStandalone("/404", kinds.KindStatus404, output.HTTPStatusHTMLFormat)
@@ -1564,7 +1661,7 @@ func (sa *sitePagesAssembler) addMissingRootSections() error {
 	w = &doctree.NodeShiftTreeWalker[contentNodeI]{
 		LockType: doctree.LockTypeWrite,
 		Tree:     sa.pageMap.treePages,
-		Handle: func(s string, n contentNodeI) (bool, error) {
+		Handle: func(s string, n contentNodeI, match doctree.DimensionFlag) (bool, error) {
 			if n == nil {
 				panic("n is nil")
 			}
@@ -1603,7 +1700,7 @@ func (sa *sitePagesAssembler) addMissingRootSections() error {
 				if err != nil {
 					return false, err
 				}
-				w.Tree.Insert(pth.Base(), ps)
+				w.Tree.InsertIntoValuesDimension(pth.Base(), ps)
 			}
 
 			// /a/b, we don't need to walk deeper.
@@ -1657,7 +1754,7 @@ func (sa *sitePagesAssembler) addMissingTaxonomies() error {
 				singular: viewName.singular,
 			}
 			p, _ := sa.h.newPage(m)
-			tree.Insert(key, p)
+			tree.InsertIntoValuesDimension(key, p)
 		}
 	}
 
@@ -1678,7 +1775,7 @@ func (m *pageMap) CreateSiteTaxonomies(ctx context.Context) error {
 			Tree:     m.treePages,
 			Prefix:   paths.AddTrailingSlash(key),
 			LockType: doctree.LockTypeRead,
-			Handle: func(s string, n contentNodeI) (bool, error) {
+			Handle: func(s string, n contentNodeI, match doctree.DimensionFlag) (bool, error) {
 				p := n.(*pageState)
 				plural := p.Section()
 
diff --git a/hugolib/content_map_test.go b/hugolib/content_map_test.go
index 33ab6a40d4e..a41b2aae916 100644
--- a/hugolib/content_map_test.go
+++ b/hugolib/content_map_test.go
@@ -234,9 +234,9 @@ Data en
 `
 	b := Test(t, files)
 
-	b.AssertFileContent("public/fr/index.html", "fr: /fr/bundle/data.txt|Data fr")
-	b.AssertFileContent("public/en/index.html", "en: /en/bundle/data.txt|Data en")
-	b.AssertFileContent("public/de/index.html", "de: /fr/bundle/data.txt|Data fr")
+	b.AssertFileContent("public/fr/index.html", "fr: /fr/bundle/data.fr.txt|Data fr")
+	b.AssertFileContent("public/en/index.html", "en: /en/bundle/data.en.txt|Data en")
+	b.AssertFileContent("public/de/index.html", "de: /fr/bundle/data.fr.txt|Data fr")
 }
 
 func TestBundleMultipleContentPageWithSamePath(t *testing.T) {
diff --git a/hugolib/doctree/dimensions.go b/hugolib/doctree/dimensions.go
index 8724c58e085..bcc3cae00ef 100644
--- a/hugolib/doctree/dimensions.go
+++ b/hugolib/doctree/dimensions.go
@@ -13,5 +13,31 @@
 
 package doctree
 
-// Dimensions is a row in the Hugo build matrix which currently has one dimension: language.
-type Dimensions []int
+const (
+	// Language is currently the only dimension in the Hugo build matrix.
+	DimensionLanguage DimensionFlag = 1 << iota
+)
+
+// Dimension is a row in the Hugo build matrix which currently has one value: language.
+type Dimension [1]int
+
+// DimensionFlag is a flag in the Hugo build matrix.
+type DimensionFlag byte
+
+// Has returns whether the given flag is set.
+func (d DimensionFlag) Has(o DimensionFlag) bool {
+	return d&o == o
+}
+
+// Set sets the given flag.
+func (d DimensionFlag) Set(o DimensionFlag) DimensionFlag {
+	return d | o
+}
+
+// Index returns this flag's index in the Dimensions array.
+func (d DimensionFlag) Index() int {
+	if d == 0 {
+		panic("dimension flag not set")
+	}
+	return int(d - 1)
+}
diff --git a/hugolib/doctree/dimensions_test.go b/hugolib/doctree/dimensions_test.go
index 8b13b01c778..598f22a2d63 100644
--- a/hugolib/doctree/dimensions_test.go
+++ b/hugolib/doctree/dimensions_test.go
@@ -19,8 +19,19 @@ import (
 	qt "github.com/frankban/quicktest"
 )
 
-func TestDim(t *testing.T) {
+func TestDimensionFlag(t *testing.T) {
 	c := qt.New(t)
 
-	c.Assert(true, qt.Equals, true)
+	var zero DimensionFlag
+	var d DimensionFlag
+	var o DimensionFlag = 1
+	var p DimensionFlag = 12
+
+	c.Assert(d.Has(o), qt.Equals, false)
+	d = d.Set(o)
+	c.Assert(d.Has(o), qt.Equals, true)
+	c.Assert(d.Has(d), qt.Equals, true)
+	c.Assert(func() { zero.Index() }, qt.PanicMatches, "dimension flag not set")
+	c.Assert(DimensionLanguage.Index(), qt.Equals, 0)
+	c.Assert(p.Index(), qt.Equals, 11)
 }
diff --git a/hugolib/doctree/nodeshiftree_test.go b/hugolib/doctree/nodeshiftree_test.go
index cdea15fe4f3..79db1a24d8b 100644
--- a/hugolib/doctree/nodeshiftree_test.go
+++ b/hugolib/doctree/nodeshiftree_test.go
@@ -33,7 +33,7 @@ var eq = qt.CmpEquals(
 			return true
 		}
 
-		return n1.ID == n2.ID && n1.Lang == n2.Lang && n1.Role == n2.Role
+		return n1.ID == n2.ID && n1.Lang == n2.Lang
 	}),
 )
 
@@ -42,31 +42,24 @@ func TestTree(t *testing.T) {
 
 	zeroZero := doctree.New(
 		doctree.Config[*testValue]{
-			MatrixRow: []int{0, 0},
-			Shifter:   &testShifter{},
+			Shifter: &testShifter{},
 		},
 	)
 
 	a := &testValue{ID: "/a"}
-	zeroZero.Insert("/a", a)
+	zeroZero.InsertIntoValuesDimension("/a", a)
 	ab := &testValue{ID: "/a/b"}
-	zeroZero.Insert("/a/b", ab)
+	zeroZero.InsertIntoValuesDimension("/a/b", ab)
 
-	c.Assert(zeroZero.Get("/a"), eq, &testValue{ID: "/a", Lang: 0, Role: 0})
+	c.Assert(zeroZero.Get("/a"), eq, &testValue{ID: "/a", Lang: 0})
 	s, v := zeroZero.LongestPrefix("/a/b/c", true, nil)
 	c.Assert(v, eq, ab)
 	c.Assert(s, eq, "/a/b")
 
 	// Change language.
 	oneZero := zeroZero.Increment(0)
-	c.Assert(zeroZero.Get("/a"), eq, &testValue{ID: "/a", Lang: 0, Role: 0})
-	c.Assert(oneZero.Get("/a"), eq, &testValue{ID: "/a", Lang: 1, Role: 0})
-
-	// Change role.
-	oneOne := oneZero.Increment(1)
-	c.Assert(zeroZero.Get("/a"), eq, &testValue{ID: "/a", Lang: 0, Role: 0})
-	c.Assert(oneZero.Get("/a"), eq, &testValue{ID: "/a", Lang: 1, Role: 0})
-	c.Assert(oneOne.Get("/a"), eq, &testValue{ID: "/a", Lang: 1, Role: 1})
+	c.Assert(zeroZero.Get("/a"), eq, &testValue{ID: "/a", Lang: 0})
+	c.Assert(oneZero.Get("/a"), eq, &testValue{ID: "/a", Lang: 1})
 }
 
 func TestTreeData(t *testing.T) {
@@ -74,17 +67,16 @@ func TestTreeData(t *testing.T) {
 
 	tree := doctree.New(
 		doctree.Config[*testValue]{
-			MatrixRow: []int{0, 0},
-			Shifter:   &testShifter{},
+			Shifter: &testShifter{},
 		},
 	)
 
-	tree.Insert("", &testValue{ID: "HOME"})
-	tree.Insert("/a", &testValue{ID: "/a"})
-	tree.Insert("/a/b", &testValue{ID: "/a/b"})
-	tree.Insert("/b", &testValue{ID: "/b"})
-	tree.Insert("/b/c", &testValue{ID: "/b/c"})
-	tree.Insert("/b/c/d", &testValue{ID: "/b/c/d"})
+	tree.InsertIntoValuesDimension("", &testValue{ID: "HOME"})
+	tree.InsertIntoValuesDimension("/a", &testValue{ID: "/a"})
+	tree.InsertIntoValuesDimension("/a/b", &testValue{ID: "/a/b"})
+	tree.InsertIntoValuesDimension("/b", &testValue{ID: "/b"})
+	tree.InsertIntoValuesDimension("/b/c", &testValue{ID: "/b/c"})
+	tree.InsertIntoValuesDimension("/b/c/d", &testValue{ID: "/b/c/d"})
 
 	var values []string
 
@@ -93,7 +85,7 @@ func TestTreeData(t *testing.T) {
 	w := &doctree.NodeShiftTreeWalker[*testValue]{
 		Tree:        tree,
 		WalkContext: ctx,
-		Handle: func(s string, t *testValue) (bool, error) {
+		Handle: func(s string, t *testValue, match doctree.DimensionFlag) (bool, error) {
 			ctx.Data().Insert(s, map[string]any{
 				"id": t.ID,
 			})
@@ -116,27 +108,26 @@ func TestTreeEvents(t *testing.T) {
 
 	tree := doctree.New(
 		doctree.Config[*testValue]{
-			MatrixRow: []int{0, 0},
-			Shifter:   &testShifter{echo: true},
+			Shifter: &testShifter{echo: true},
 		},
 	)
 
-	tree.Insert("/a", &testValue{ID: "/a", Weight: 2, IsBranch: true})
-	tree.Insert("/a/p1", &testValue{ID: "/a/p1", Weight: 5})
-	tree.Insert("/a/p", &testValue{ID: "/a/p2", Weight: 6})
-	tree.Insert("/a/s1", &testValue{ID: "/a/s1", Weight: 5, IsBranch: true})
-	tree.Insert("/a/s1/p1", &testValue{ID: "/a/s1/p1", Weight: 8})
-	tree.Insert("/a/s1/p1", &testValue{ID: "/a/s1/p2", Weight: 9})
-	tree.Insert("/a/s1/s2", &testValue{ID: "/a/s1/s2", Weight: 6, IsBranch: true})
-	tree.Insert("/a/s1/s2/p1", &testValue{ID: "/a/s1/s2/p1", Weight: 8})
-	tree.Insert("/a/s1/s2/p2", &testValue{ID: "/a/s1/s2/p2", Weight: 7})
+	tree.InsertIntoValuesDimension("/a", &testValue{ID: "/a", Weight: 2, IsBranch: true})
+	tree.InsertIntoValuesDimension("/a/p1", &testValue{ID: "/a/p1", Weight: 5})
+	tree.InsertIntoValuesDimension("/a/p", &testValue{ID: "/a/p2", Weight: 6})
+	tree.InsertIntoValuesDimension("/a/s1", &testValue{ID: "/a/s1", Weight: 5, IsBranch: true})
+	tree.InsertIntoValuesDimension("/a/s1/p1", &testValue{ID: "/a/s1/p1", Weight: 8})
+	tree.InsertIntoValuesDimension("/a/s1/p1", &testValue{ID: "/a/s1/p2", Weight: 9})
+	tree.InsertIntoValuesDimension("/a/s1/s2", &testValue{ID: "/a/s1/s2", Weight: 6, IsBranch: true})
+	tree.InsertIntoValuesDimension("/a/s1/s2/p1", &testValue{ID: "/a/s1/s2/p1", Weight: 8})
+	tree.InsertIntoValuesDimension("/a/s1/s2/p2", &testValue{ID: "/a/s1/s2/p2", Weight: 7})
 
 	w := &doctree.NodeShiftTreeWalker[*testValue]{
 		Tree:        tree,
 		WalkContext: &doctree.WalkContext[*testValue]{},
 	}
 
-	w.Handle = func(s string, t *testValue) (bool, error) {
+	w.Handle = func(s string, t *testValue, match doctree.DimensionFlag) (bool, error) {
 		if t.IsBranch {
 			w.WalkContext.AddEventListener("weight", s, func(e *doctree.Event[*testValue]) {
 				if e.Source.Weight > t.Weight {
@@ -169,21 +160,20 @@ func TestTreeInsert(t *testing.T) {
 
 	tree := doctree.New(
 		doctree.Config[*testValue]{
-			MatrixRow: []int{0, 0},
-			Shifter:   &testShifter{},
+			Shifter: &testShifter{},
 		},
 	)
 
 	a := &testValue{ID: "/a"}
-	tree.Insert("/a", a)
+	tree.InsertIntoValuesDimension("/a", a)
 	ab := &testValue{ID: "/a/b"}
-	tree.Insert("/a/b", ab)
+	tree.InsertIntoValuesDimension("/a/b", ab)
 
-	c.Assert(tree.Get("/a"), eq, &testValue{ID: "/a", Lang: 0, Role: 0})
+	c.Assert(tree.Get("/a"), eq, &testValue{ID: "/a", Lang: 0})
 	c.Assert(tree.Get("/notfound"), qt.IsNil)
 
 	ab2 := &testValue{ID: "/a/b", Lang: 0}
-	v, ok := tree.Insert("/a/b", ab2)
+	v, ok := tree.InsertIntoValuesDimension("/a/b", ab2)
 	c.Assert(ok, qt.IsTrue)
 	c.Assert(v, qt.DeepEquals, ab2)
 
@@ -199,8 +189,7 @@ func TestTreePara(t *testing.T) {
 
 	tree := doctree.New(
 		doctree.Config[*testValue]{
-			MatrixRow: []int{0, 0},
-			Shifter:   &testShifter{},
+			Shifter: &testShifter{},
 		},
 	)
 
@@ -210,13 +199,13 @@ func TestTreePara(t *testing.T) {
 			a := &testValue{ID: "/a"}
 			lock := tree.Lock(true)
 			defer lock()
-			tree.Insert("/a", a)
+			tree.InsertIntoValuesDimension("/a", a)
 			ab := &testValue{ID: "/a/b"}
-			tree.Insert("/a/b", ab)
+			tree.InsertIntoValuesDimension("/a/b", ab)
 
 			key := fmt.Sprintf("/a/b/c/%d", i)
 			val := &testValue{ID: key}
-			tree.Insert(key, val)
+			tree.InsertIntoValuesDimension(key, val)
 			c.Assert(tree.Get(key), eq, val)
 			// s, _ := tree.LongestPrefix(key, nil)
 			// c.Assert(s, eq, "/a/b")
@@ -239,6 +228,10 @@ func TestValidateKey(t *testing.T) {
 	c.Assert(doctree.ValidateKey("/abc/"), qt.IsNotNil)
 }
 
+const (
+	testDimension1 doctree.DimensionFlag = 1 << iota
+)
+
 type testShifter struct {
 	echo bool
 }
@@ -247,31 +240,31 @@ func (s *testShifter) Dimension(n *testValue, d int) []*testValue {
 	return []*testValue{n}
 }
 
-func (s *testShifter) Insert(old, new *testValue) (*testValue, bool) {
-	return new, true
+func (s *testShifter) Insert(old, new *testValue) *testValue {
+	return new
 }
 
-func (s *testShifter) Delete(n *testValue, dimension []int) (bool, bool) {
+func (s *testShifter) InsertInto(old, new *testValue, dimension doctree.Dimension) *testValue {
+	return new
+}
+
+func (s *testShifter) Delete(n *testValue, dimension doctree.Dimension) (bool, bool) {
 	return true, true
 }
 
-func (s *testShifter) Shift(n *testValue, dimension []int, exact bool) (*testValue, bool) {
+func (s *testShifter) Shift(n *testValue, dimension doctree.Dimension, exact bool) (*testValue, bool, doctree.DimensionFlag) {
 	if s.echo {
-		return n, true
+		return n, true, testDimension1
 	}
 	if n.NoCopy {
-		if n.Lang == dimension[0] && n.Role == dimension[1] {
-			return n, true
+		if n.Lang == dimension[0] {
+			return n, true, testDimension1
 		}
-		return nil, false
-	}
-	if len(dimension) != 2 {
-		panic("invalid dimension")
+		return nil, false, testDimension1
 	}
 	c := *n
 	c.Lang = dimension[0]
-	c.Role = dimension[1]
-	return &c, true
+	return &c, true, testDimension1
 }
 
 func (s *testShifter) All(n *testValue) []*testValue {
@@ -281,7 +274,6 @@ func (s *testShifter) All(n *testValue) []*testValue {
 type testValue struct {
 	ID   string
 	Lang int
-	Role int
 
 	Weight   int
 	IsBranch bool
@@ -294,14 +286,13 @@ func BenchmarkTreeInsert(b *testing.B) {
 		for i := 0; i < b.N; i++ {
 			tree := doctree.New(
 				doctree.Config[*testValue]{
-					MatrixRow: []int{0, 0},
-					Shifter:   &testShifter{},
+					Shifter: &testShifter{},
 				},
 			)
 
 			for i := 0; i < numElements; i++ {
-				lang, role := rand.Intn(2), rand.Intn(2)
-				tree.Insert(fmt.Sprintf("/%d", i), &testValue{ID: fmt.Sprintf("/%d", i), Lang: lang, Role: role, Weight: i, NoCopy: true})
+				lang := rand.Intn(2)
+				tree.InsertIntoValuesDimension(fmt.Sprintf("/%d", i), &testValue{ID: fmt.Sprintf("/%d", i), Lang: lang, Weight: i, NoCopy: true})
 			}
 		}
 	}
@@ -329,20 +320,19 @@ func BenchmarkWalk(b *testing.B) {
 	createTree := func() *doctree.NodeShiftTree[*testValue] {
 		tree := doctree.New(
 			doctree.Config[*testValue]{
-				MatrixRow: []int{0, 0},
-				Shifter:   &testShifter{},
+				Shifter: &testShifter{},
 			},
 		)
 
 		for i := 0; i < numElements; i++ {
-			lang, role := rand.Intn(2), rand.Intn(2)
-			tree.Insert(fmt.Sprintf("/%d", i), &testValue{ID: fmt.Sprintf("/%d", i), Lang: lang, Role: role, Weight: i, NoCopy: true})
+			lang := rand.Intn(2)
+			tree.InsertIntoValuesDimension(fmt.Sprintf("/%d", i), &testValue{ID: fmt.Sprintf("/%d", i), Lang: lang, Weight: i, NoCopy: true})
 		}
 
 		return tree
 	}
 
-	handle := func(s string, t *testValue) (bool, error) {
+	handle := func(s string, t *testValue, match doctree.DimensionFlag) (bool, error) {
 		return false, nil
 	}
 
@@ -366,7 +356,7 @@ func BenchmarkWalk(b *testing.B) {
 			base := createTree()
 			b.ResetTimer()
 			for i := 0; i < b.N; i++ {
-				for d1 := 0; d1 < 2; d1++ {
+				for d1 := 0; d1 < 1; d1++ {
 					for d2 := 0; d2 < 2; d2++ {
 						tree := base.Shape(d1, d2)
 						w := &doctree.NodeShiftTreeWalker[*testValue]{
diff --git a/hugolib/doctree/nodeshifttree.go b/hugolib/doctree/nodeshifttree.go
index e5856578bc9..6c3b1161ce4 100644
--- a/hugolib/doctree/nodeshifttree.go
+++ b/hugolib/doctree/nodeshifttree.go
@@ -26,10 +26,6 @@ import (
 
 type (
 	Config[T any] struct {
-		// MatrixRow configures a row in the matrix (e.g. [role, language]).
-		// It cannot be changed once set.
-		MatrixRow Dimensions
-
 		// Shifter handles tree transformations.
 		Shifter Shifter[T]
 	}
@@ -39,18 +35,23 @@ type (
 		// Dimension gets all values of node n in dimension d.
 		Dimension(n T, d int) []T
 
-		// Insert inserts new into the correct dimension.
+		// Insert inserts new into the tree into the dimension it provides.
+		// It may replace old.
+		// It returns a T (can be the same as old).
+		Insert(old, new T) T
+
+		// Insert inserts new into the given dimension.
 		// It may replace old.
-		// It returns a T (can be the same as old) and a bool indicating if the insert was successful.
-		Insert(old, new T) (T, bool)
+		// It returns a T (can be the same as old).
+		InsertInto(old, new T, dimension Dimension) T
 
 		// Delete deletes T from the given dimension and returns whether the dimension was deleted and if  it's empty after the delete.
-		Delete(v T, dimension []int) (bool, bool)
+		Delete(v T, dimension Dimension) (bool, bool)
 
-		// Shift shifts T into the given dimension.
-		// It may return a zero value and false.
-		// If exact is set, it will only return an exact match.
-		Shift(v T, dimension []int, exact bool) (T, bool)
+		// Shift shifts T into the given dimension
+		// and returns the shifted T and a bool indicating if the shift was successful and
+		// how accurate a match T is according to its dimensions.
+		Shift(v T, dimension Dimension, exact bool) (T, bool, DimensionFlag)
 
 		// All returns all values of T in all dimensions.
 		All(n T) []T
@@ -64,7 +65,7 @@ type NodeShiftTree[T any] struct {
 	tree *radix.Tree
 
 	// E.g. [language, role].
-	dims    Dimensions
+	dims    Dimension
 	shifter Shifter[T]
 
 	mu *sync.RWMutex
@@ -75,13 +76,8 @@ func New[T any](cfg Config[T]) *NodeShiftTree[T] {
 		panic("Shifter is required")
 	}
 
-	if len(cfg.MatrixRow) == 0 {
-		panic("At least one dimension is required")
-	}
-
 	return &NodeShiftTree[T]{
 		mu:      &sync.RWMutex{},
-		dims:    cfg.MatrixRow,
 		shifter: cfg.Shifter,
 		tree:    radix.New(),
 	}
@@ -147,20 +143,20 @@ func (t *NodeShiftTree[T]) Increment(d int) *NodeShiftTree[T] {
 	return t.Shape(d, t.dims[d]+1)
 }
 
-func (r *NodeShiftTree[T]) Insert(s string, v T) (T, bool) {
-	s = cleanKey(s)
-	mustValidateKey(s)
-	vv, ok := r.tree.Get(s)
-
-	if ok {
-		v, ok = r.shifter.Insert(vv.(T), v)
-		if !ok {
-			return v, false
-		}
+func (r *NodeShiftTree[T]) InsertIntoCurrentDimension(s string, v T) (T, bool) {
+	s = mustValidateKey(cleanKey(s))
+	if vv, ok := r.tree.Get(s); ok {
+		v = r.shifter.InsertInto(vv.(T), v, r.dims)
 	}
+	r.tree.Insert(s, v)
+	return v, true
+}
 
-	// fmt.Printf("Insert2 %q -> %T\n", s, v)
-
+func (r *NodeShiftTree[T]) InsertIntoValuesDimension(s string, v T) (T, bool) {
+	s = mustValidateKey(cleanKey(s))
+	if vv, ok := r.tree.Get(s); ok {
+		v = r.shifter.Insert(vv.(T), v)
+	}
 	r.tree.Insert(s, v)
 	return v, true
 }
@@ -174,7 +170,7 @@ func (r *NodeShiftTree[T]) InsertRawWithLock(s string, v any) (any, bool) {
 func (r *NodeShiftTree[T]) InsertWithLock(s string, v T) (T, bool) {
 	r.mu.Lock()
 	defer r.mu.Unlock()
-	return r.Insert(s, v)
+	return r.InsertIntoValuesDimension(s, v)
 }
 
 func (t *NodeShiftTree[T]) Len() int {
@@ -213,7 +209,7 @@ func (r *NodeShiftTree[T]) LongestPrefix(s string, exact bool, predicate func(v
 		longestPrefix, v, found := r.tree.LongestPrefix(s)
 
 		if found {
-			if t, ok := r.shift(v.(T), exact); ok && (predicate == nil || predicate(t)) {
+			if t, ok, _ := r.shift(v.(T), exact); ok && (predicate == nil || predicate(t)) {
 				return longestPrefix, t
 			}
 		}
@@ -294,7 +290,7 @@ type NodeShiftTreeWalker[T any] struct {
 	// Handle will be called for each node in the main tree.
 	// If the callback returns true, the walk will stop.
 	// The callback can optionally return a callback for the nested tree.
-	Handle func(string, T) (terminate bool, err error)
+	Handle func(s string, v T, exact DimensionFlag) (terminate bool, err error)
 
 	// Optional prefix filter.
 	Prefix string
@@ -364,13 +360,13 @@ func (r *NodeShiftTreeWalker[T]) Walk(ctx context.Context) error {
 			return false
 		}
 
-		t, ok := r.toT(r.Tree, v)
+		t, ok, exact := r.toT(r.Tree, v)
 		if !ok {
 			return false
 		}
 
 		var terminate bool
-		terminate, err = r.Handle(s, t)
+		terminate, err = r.Handle(s, t, exact)
 		if terminate || err != nil {
 			return true
 		}
@@ -394,12 +390,12 @@ func (r *NodeShiftTreeWalker[T]) resetLocalState() {
 	r.skipPrefixes = nil
 }
 
-func (r *NodeShiftTreeWalker[T]) toT(tree *NodeShiftTree[T], v any) (t T, ok bool) {
+func (r *NodeShiftTreeWalker[T]) toT(tree *NodeShiftTree[T], v any) (t T, ok bool, exact DimensionFlag) {
 	if r.NoShift {
 		t = v.(T)
 		ok = true
 	} else {
-		t, ok = tree.shift(v.(T), r.Exact)
+		t, ok, exact = tree.shift(v.(T), r.Exact)
 	}
 	return
 }
@@ -410,14 +406,10 @@ func (r *NodeShiftTree[T]) Has(s string) bool {
 }
 
 func (t NodeShiftTree[T]) clone() *NodeShiftTree[T] {
-	dimensions := make(Dimensions, len(t.dims))
-	copy(dimensions, t.dims)
-	t.dims = dimensions
-
 	return &t
 }
 
-func (r *NodeShiftTree[T]) shift(t T, exact bool) (T, bool) {
+func (r *NodeShiftTree[T]) shift(t T, exact bool) (T, bool, DimensionFlag) {
 	return r.shifter.Shift(t, r.dims, exact)
 }
 
@@ -428,7 +420,7 @@ func (r *NodeShiftTree[T]) get(s string) (T, bool) {
 		var t T
 		return t, false
 	}
-	t, ok := r.shift(v.(T), true)
+	t, ok, _ := r.shift(v.(T), true)
 	return t, ok
 }
 
diff --git a/hugolib/doctree/support.go b/hugolib/doctree/support.go
index f2e3000ff86..8083df127ac 100644
--- a/hugolib/doctree/support.go
+++ b/hugolib/doctree/support.go
@@ -243,8 +243,9 @@ func (ctx *WalkContext[T]) HandleEventsAndHooks() error {
 	return nil
 }
 
-func mustValidateKey(key string) {
+func mustValidateKey(key string) string {
 	if err := ValidateKey(key); err != nil {
 		panic(err)
 	}
+	return key
 }
diff --git a/hugolib/hugo_sites.go b/hugolib/hugo_sites.go
index 231f808c87c..80e75445374 100644
--- a/hugolib/hugo_sites.go
+++ b/hugolib/hugo_sites.go
@@ -370,7 +370,7 @@ func (h *HugoSites) withPage(fn func(s string, p *pageState) bool) {
 		w := &doctree.NodeShiftTreeWalker[contentNodeI]{
 			Tree:     s.pageMap.treePages,
 			LockType: doctree.LockTypeRead,
-			Handle: func(s string, n contentNodeI) (bool, error) {
+			Handle: func(s string, n contentNodeI, match doctree.DimensionFlag) (bool, error) {
 				return fn(s, n.(*pageState)), nil
 			},
 		}
diff --git a/hugolib/page.go b/hugolib/page.go
index 0384199c879..2bd4c49f190 100644
--- a/hugolib/page.go
+++ b/hugolib/page.go
@@ -21,6 +21,7 @@ import (
 	"sync/atomic"
 
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugofs"
+	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/hugolib/doctree"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/identity"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/media"
 	"github.com/gohugoio/hugo/output"
@@ -359,7 +360,7 @@ func (p *pageState) AllTranslations() page.Pages {
 			page.SortByLanguage(pasc)
 			return pasc, nil
 		}
-		all := p.s.pageMap.treePages.GetDimension(p.Path(), pageTreeDimensionLanguage)
+		all := p.s.pageMap.treePages.GetDimension(p.Path(), doctree.DimensionLanguage.Index())
 		var pas page.Pages
 		for _, p := range all {
 			if p == nil {
diff --git a/hugolib/page__tree.go b/hugolib/page__tree.go
index 67b082bf04e..e54d596bc95 100644
--- a/hugolib/page__tree.go
+++ b/hugolib/page__tree.go
@@ -154,7 +154,7 @@ func (pt pageTree) Sections() page.Pages {
 		Tree:   tree,
 		Prefix: prefix,
 	}
-	w.Handle = func(ss string, n contentNodeI) (bool, error) {
+	w.Handle = func(ss string, n contentNodeI, match doctree.DimensionFlag) (bool, error) {
 		if !n.isContentNodeBranch() {
 			return false, nil
 		}
diff --git a/hugolib/page_test.go b/hugolib/page_test.go
index b764a23f5c9..f5ff95f3c29 100644
--- a/hugolib/page_test.go
+++ b/hugolib/page_test.go
@@ -1396,7 +1396,7 @@ Resources: {{ range .Resources }}{{ .RelPermalink }}|{{ .Content }}|{{ end }}|
 
 	b.AssertFileContent("public/nn/sect/mybundle_nn/index.html",
 		"TranslationKey: adfasdf|",
-		"Title: mybundle nn|TranslationKey: adfasdf|\nResources: /en/sect/mybundle_en/f1.txt|f1.en|/nn/sect/mybundle_nn/f2.txt|f2.nn||",
+		"Title: mybundle nn|TranslationKey: adfasdf|\nResources: /en/sect/mybundle_en/f1.txt|f1.en|/nn/sect/mybundle_nn/f2.nn.txt|f2.nn||",
 	)
 }
 
diff --git a/hugolib/pagebundler_test.go b/hugolib/pagebundler_test.go
index 2b75ddf608c..123d752e0f4 100644
--- a/hugolib/pagebundler_test.go
+++ b/hugolib/pagebundler_test.go
@@ -174,7 +174,7 @@ Resources: {{ range .Resources }}RelPermalink: {{ .RelPermalink }}|Content: {{ .
 	b := Test(t, files)
 
 	b.AssertFileContent("public/en/mybundle/index.html", "My Bundle|/en/mybundle/|en|\nResources: RelPermalink: /en/mybundle/f1.txt|Content: F1|RelPermalink: /en/mybundle/f2.txt|Content: F2||")
-	b.AssertFileContent("public/nn/mybundle/index.html", "My Bundle NN|/nn/mybundle/|nn|\nResources: RelPermalink: /en/mybundle/f1.txt|Content: F1|RelPermalink: /nn/mybundle/f2.txt|Content: F2 nn.||")
+	b.AssertFileContent("public/nn/mybundle/index.html", "My Bundle NN|/nn/mybundle/|nn|\nResources: RelPermalink: /en/mybundle/f1.txt|Content: F1|RelPermalink: /nn/mybundle/f2.nn.txt|Content: F2 nn.||")
 }
 
 func TestMultilingualDisableLanguage(t *testing.T) {
@@ -420,6 +420,77 @@ Single content.
 	b.AssertFileContent("public/section-not-bundle/single/index.html", "Section Single", "|<p>Single content.</p>")
 }
 
+func TestBundledResourcesMultilingualDuplicateResourceFiles(t *testing.T) {
+	t.Parallel()
+
+	files := `
+-- hugo.toml --
+baseURL = "https://example.com/"
+[markup]
+[markup.goldmark]
+duplicateResourceFiles = true
+[languages]
+[languages.en]
+weight = 1
+[languages.en.permalinks]
+"/" = "/enpages/:slug/"
+[languages.nn]
+weight = 2
+[languages.nn.permalinks]
+"/" = "/nnpages/:slug/"
+-- content/mybundle/index.md --
+---
+title: "My Bundle"
+---
+{{< getresource "f1.txt" >}}
+{{< getresource "f2.txt" >}}
+-- content/mybundle/index.nn.md --
+---
+title: "My Bundle NN"
+---
+{{< getresource "f1.txt" >}}
+f2.nn.txt is the original name.
+{{< getresource "f2.nn.txt" >}}
+{{< getresource "f2.txt" >}}
+{{< getresource "sub/f3.txt" >}}
+-- content/mybundle/f1.txt --
+F1 en.
+-- content/mybundle/sub/f3.txt --
+F1 en.
+-- content/mybundle/f2.txt --
+F2 en.
+-- content/mybundle/f2.nn.txt --
+F2 nn.
+-- layouts/shortcodes/getresource.html --
+{{ $r := .Page.Resources.Get (.Get 0)}}
+Resource: {{ (.Get 0) }}|{{ with $r }}{{ .RelPermalink }}|{{ .Content }}|{{ else }}Not found.{{ end}}
+-- layouts/_default/single.html --
+{{ .Title }}|{{ .RelPermalink }}|{{ .Lang }}|{{ .Content }}|
+`
+	b := Test(t, files)
+
+	// helpers.PrintFs(b.H.Fs.PublishDir, "", os.Stdout)
+	b.AssertFileContent("public/nn/nnpages/my-bundle-nn/index.html", `
+My Bundle NN
+Resource: f1.txt|/nn/nnpages/my-bundle-nn/f1.txt|
+Resource: f2.txt|/nn/nnpages/my-bundle-nn/f2.nn.txt|F2 nn.|
+Resource: f2.nn.txt|/nn/nnpages/my-bundle-nn/f2.nn.txt|F2 nn.|
+Resource: sub/f3.txt|/nn/nnpages/my-bundle-nn/sub/f3.txt|F1 en.|
+`)
+
+	b.AssertFileContent("public/enpages/my-bundle/f2.txt", "F2 en.")
+	b.AssertFileContent("public/nn/nnpages/my-bundle-nn/f2.nn.txt", "F2 nn")
+
+	b.AssertFileContent("public/enpages/my-bundle/index.html", `
+Resource: f1.txt|/enpages/my-bundle/f1.txt|F1 en.|
+Resource: f2.txt|/enpages/my-bundle/f2.txt|F2 en.|
+`)
+	b.AssertFileContent("public/enpages/my-bundle/f1.txt", "F1 en.")
+
+	// Should be duplicated to the nn bundle.
+	b.AssertFileContent("public/nn/nnpages/my-bundle-nn/f1.txt", "F1 en.")
+}
+
 // https://github.com/gohugoio/hugo/issues/5858
 func TestBundledResourcesWhenMultipleOutputFormats(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Parallel()
diff --git a/hugolib/site.go b/hugolib/site.go
index 972cfeb19d3..312f6b97f1c 100644
--- a/hugolib/site.go
+++ b/hugolib/site.go
@@ -213,7 +213,7 @@ func (s *Site) initRenderFormats() {
 
 	w := &doctree.NodeShiftTreeWalker[contentNodeI]{
 		Tree: s.pageMap.treePages,
-		Handle: func(key string, n contentNodeI) (bool, error) {
+		Handle: func(key string, n contentNodeI, match doctree.DimensionFlag) (bool, error) {
 			if p, ok := n.(*pageState); ok {
 				for _, f := range p.m.configuredOutputFormats {
 					if !formatSet[f.Name] {
diff --git a/hugolib/site_new.go b/hugolib/site_new.go
index f44501c9e07..5fc4c9cf3d9 100644
--- a/hugolib/site_new.go
+++ b/hugolib/site_new.go
@@ -146,32 +146,22 @@ func NewHugoSites(cfg deps.DepsCfg) (*HugoSites, error) {
 	confm := cfg.Configs
 	var sites []*Site
 
-	// Set up the page trees.
-	matrixRow := []int{
-		// language
-		0,
+	ns := &contentNodeShifter{
+		numLanguages: len(confm.Languages),
 	}
 
-	ns := &contentNodeShifter{}
-
-	pageTreeConfig := doctree.Config[contentNodeI]{
-		MatrixRow: matrixRow,
-		Shifter:   ns,
-	}
-
-	resourceTreeConfig := doctree.Config[contentNodeI]{
-		MatrixRow: matrixRow,
-		Shifter:   ns,
+	treeConfig := doctree.Config[contentNodeI]{
+		Shifter: ns,
 	}
 
 	pageTrees := &pageTrees{
 		treePages: doctree.New(
-			pageTreeConfig,
+			treeConfig,
 		),
 		treeResources: doctree.New(
-			resourceTreeConfig,
+			treeConfig,
 		),
-		treeTaxonomyEntries: doctree.NewTreeShiftTree[*weightedContentNode](pageTreeDimensionLanguage, len(confm.Languages)),
+		treeTaxonomyEntries: doctree.NewTreeShiftTree[*weightedContentNode](doctree.DimensionLanguage.Index(), len(confm.Languages)),
 	}
 
 	pageTrees.treePagesResources = doctree.WalkableTrees[contentNodeI]{
diff --git a/hugolib/site_render.go b/hugolib/site_render.go
index f9e9125f310..379dd6e867b 100644
--- a/hugolib/site_render.go
+++ b/hugolib/site_render.go
@@ -83,7 +83,7 @@ func (s *Site) renderPages(ctx *siteRenderContext) error {
 
 	w := &doctree.NodeShiftTreeWalker[contentNodeI]{
 		Tree: s.pageMap.treePages,
-		Handle: func(key string, n contentNodeI) (bool, error) {
+		Handle: func(key string, n contentNodeI, match doctree.DimensionFlag) (bool, error) {
 			if p, ok := n.(*pageState); ok {
 				if cfg.shouldRender(p) {
 					select {
@@ -266,7 +266,7 @@ func (s *Site) renderPaginator(p *pageState, templ tpl.Template) error {
 func (s *Site) renderAliases() error {
 	w := &doctree.NodeShiftTreeWalker[contentNodeI]{
 		Tree: s.pageMap.treePages,
-		Handle: func(key string, n contentNodeI) (bool, error) {
+		Handle: func(key string, n contentNodeI, match doctree.DimensionFlag) (bool, error) {
 			p := n.(*pageState)
 
 			// We cannot alias a page that's not rendered.
diff --git a/markup/goldmark/goldmark_config/config.go b/markup/goldmark/goldmark_config/config.go
index cdfb4e7cc00..739913f69b6 100644
--- a/markup/goldmark/goldmark_config/config.go
+++ b/markup/goldmark/goldmark_config/config.go
@@ -66,9 +66,10 @@ var Default = Config{
 
 // Config configures Goldmark.
 type Config struct {
-	Renderer   Renderer
-	Parser     Parser
-	Extensions Extensions
+	DuplicateResourceFiles bool
+	Renderer               Renderer
+	Parser                 Parser
+	Extensions             Extensions
 }
 
 type Extensions struct {
diff --git a/markup/markup.go b/markup/markup.go
index ebd86f38fc0..835c7bbecac 100644
--- a/markup/markup.go
+++ b/markup/markup.go
@@ -95,6 +95,7 @@ func NewConverterProvider(cfg converter.ProviderConfig) (ConverterProvider, erro
 
 type ConverterProvider interface {
 	Get(name string) converter.Provider
+	IsGoldmark(name string) bool
 	// Default() converter.Provider
 	GetMarkupConfig() markup_config.Config
 	GetHighlighter() highlight.Highlighter
@@ -110,6 +111,11 @@ type converterRegistry struct {
 	config converter.ProviderConfig
 }
 
+func (r *converterRegistry) IsGoldmark(name string) bool {
+	cp := r.Get(name)
+	return cp != nil && cp.Name() == "goldmark"
+}
+
 func (r *converterRegistry) Get(name string) converter.Provider {
 	return r.converters[strings.ToLower(name)]
 }
diff --git a/resources/resource.go b/resources/resource.go
index 1c5fd0f47e0..29f9f81720d 100644
--- a/resources/resource.go
+++ b/resources/resource.go
@@ -62,6 +62,9 @@ type ResourceSourceDescriptor struct {
 	// The name of the resource.
 	Name string
 
+	// The name of the resource as it was read from the source.
+	NameOriginal string
+
 	// Any base paths prepended to the target path. This will also typically be the
 	// language code, but setting it here means that it should not have any effect on
 	// the permalink.
@@ -136,6 +139,10 @@ func (fd *ResourceSourceDescriptor) init(r *Spec) error {
 		fd.Name = fd.TargetPath
 	}
 
+	if fd.NameOriginal == "" {
+		fd.NameOriginal = fd.Name
+	}
+
 	mediaType := fd.MediaType
 	if mediaType.IsZero() {
 		ext := fd.Path.Ext()
@@ -447,6 +454,10 @@ func (l *genericResource) Name() string {
 	return l.name
 }
 
+func (l *genericResource) NameOriginal() string {
+	return l.sd.NameOriginal
+}
+
 func (l *genericResource) Params() maps.Params {
 	return l.params
 }
diff --git a/resources/resource/resources.go b/resources/resource/resources.go
index 2f9ee332a2e..9f298b7a6c6 100644
--- a/resources/resource/resources.go
+++ b/resources/resource/resources.go
@@ -55,16 +55,33 @@ func (r Resources) ByType(typ any) Resources {
 // Get locates the name given in Resources.
 // The search is case insensitive.
 func (r Resources) Get(name any) Resource {
+	if r == nil {
+		return nil
+	}
 	namestr, err := cast.ToStringE(name)
 	if err != nil {
 		panic(err)
 	}
 	namestr = strings.ToLower(namestr)
+
+	// First check the Name.
+	// Note that this can be modified by the user in the front matter,
+	// also, it does not contain any language code.
 	for _, resource := range r {
 		if strings.EqualFold(namestr, resource.Name()) {
 			return resource
 		}
 	}
+
+	// Finally, check the original name.
+	for _, resource := range r {
+		if nop, ok := resource.(NameOriginalProvider); ok {
+			if strings.EqualFold(namestr, nop.NameOriginal()) {
+				return resource
+			}
+		}
+	}
+
 	return nil
 }
 
diff --git a/resources/resource/resourcetypes.go b/resources/resource/resourcetypes.go
index 4d20c89fb4a..43d0aa7864e 100644
--- a/resources/resource/resourcetypes.go
+++ b/resources/resource/resourcetypes.go
@@ -126,12 +126,22 @@ type ResourceNameTitleProvider interface {
 	// So, for the image "/some/path/sunset.jpg" this will be "sunset.jpg".
 	// The value returned by this method will be used in the GetByPrefix and ByPrefix methods
 	// on Resources.
+	// Note that for bundled content resources with language code in the filename, this will
+	// be the name without the language code.
 	Name() string
 
 	// Title returns the title if set in front matter. For content pages, this will be the expected value.
 	Title() string
 }
 
+type NameOriginalProvider interface {
+	// NameOriginal is the original name of this resource.
+	// Note that for bundled content resources with language code in the filename, this will
+	// be the name with the language code.
+	// For internal use (for now).
+	NameOriginal() string
+}
+
 type ResourceParamsProvider interface {
 	// Params set in front matter for this resource.
 	Params() maps.Params
diff --git a/resources/resource_metadata.go b/resources/resource_metadata.go
index 6bc31084f06..869fc11bf5e 100644
--- a/resources/resource_metadata.go
+++ b/resources/resource_metadata.go
@@ -28,9 +28,10 @@ import (
 )
 
 var (
-	_ mediaTypeAssigner = (*genericResource)(nil)
-	_ mediaTypeAssigner = (*imageResource)(nil)
-	_ resource.Staler   = (*genericResource)(nil)
+	_ mediaTypeAssigner             = (*genericResource)(nil)
+	_ mediaTypeAssigner             = (*imageResource)(nil)
+	_ resource.Staler               = (*genericResource)(nil)
+	_ resource.NameOriginalProvider = (*genericResource)(nil)
 )
 
 // metaAssigner allows updating metadata in resources that supports it.
diff --git a/resources/transform.go b/resources/transform.go
index c0ae19e8649..57c5794ff82 100644
--- a/resources/transform.go
+++ b/resources/transform.go
@@ -55,6 +55,7 @@ var (
 	_ resource.WithResourceMetaProvider  = (*resourceAdapter)(nil)
 	_ identity.DependencyManagerProvider = (*resourceAdapter)(nil)
 	_ identity.IdentityGroupProvider     = (*resourceAdapter)(nil)
+	_ resource.NameOriginalProvider      = (*resourceAdapter)(nil)
 )
 
 // These are transformations that need special support in Hugo that may not
@@ -279,6 +280,11 @@ func (r *resourceAdapter) Name() string {
 	return r.metaProvider.Name()
 }
 
+func (r *resourceAdapter) NameOriginal() string {
+	r.init(false, false)
+	return r.target.(resource.NameOriginalProvider).NameOriginal()
+}
+
 func (r *resourceAdapter) Params() maps.Params {
 	r.init(false, false)
 	return r.metaProvider.Params()