diff --git a/libraries/chain/chain_controller.cpp b/libraries/chain/chain_controller.cpp
index 2f68c5f34fb..ffff7d970b3 100644
--- a/libraries/chain/chain_controller.cpp
+++ b/libraries/chain/chain_controller.cpp
@@ -32,6 +32,7 @@
 #include <eos/chain/transaction_object.hpp>
 #include <eos/chain/producer_object.hpp>
 #include <eos/chain/permission_link_object.hpp>
+#include <eos/chain/authority_checker.hpp>
 
 #include <eos/chain/wasm_interface.hpp>
 
@@ -245,6 +246,7 @@ ProcessedTransaction chain_controller::_push_transaction(const SignedTransaction
       _pending_tx_session = _db.start_undo_session(true);
 
    auto temp_session = _db.start_undo_session(true);
+   validate_referenced_accounts(trx);
    check_transaction_authorization(trx);
    auto pt = _apply_transaction(trx);
    _pending_transactions.push_back(trx);
@@ -330,6 +332,7 @@ signed_block chain_controller::_generate_block(
       try
       {
          auto temp_session = _db.start_undo_session(true);
+         validate_referenced_accounts(tx);
          check_transaction_authorization(tx);
          _apply_transaction(tx);
          temp_session.squash();
@@ -440,8 +443,10 @@ void chain_controller::_apply_block(const signed_block& next_block)
    
    for (const auto& cycle : next_block.cycles)
       for (const auto& thread : cycle)
-         for (const auto& trx : thread.user_input)
+         for (const auto& trx : thread.user_input) {
+            validate_referenced_accounts(trx);
             check_transaction_authorization(trx);
+         }
 
    /* We do not need to push the undo state for each transaction
     * because they either all apply and are valid or the
@@ -505,6 +510,9 @@ void chain_controller::check_transaction_authorization(const SignedTransaction&
                        ("auth", declaredAuthority));
          }
       }
+
+   EOS_ASSERT(checker.all_keys_used(), tx_irrelevant_sig,
+              "Transaction bears irrelevant signatures from these keys: ${keys}", ("keys", checker.unused_keys()));
 }
 
 ProcessedTransaction chain_controller::apply_transaction(const SignedTransaction& trx, uint32_t skip)
@@ -520,7 +528,6 @@ try {
    validate_expiration(trx);
    validate_uniqueness(trx);
    validate_tapos(trx);
-   validate_referenced_accounts(trx);
 
 } FC_CAPTURE_AND_RETHROW( (trx) ) }
 
diff --git a/libraries/chain/include/eos/chain/authority.hpp b/libraries/chain/include/eos/chain/authority.hpp
index 3b68ab211a6..95845f6a486 100644
--- a/libraries/chain/include/eos/chain/authority.hpp
+++ b/libraries/chain/include/eos/chain/authority.hpp
@@ -30,62 +30,15 @@ struct shared_authority {
    shared_vector<types::KeyPermissionWeight>     keys;
 };
 
-/**
- * @brief This class determines whether a set of signing keys are sufficient to satisfy an authority or not
- *
- * To determine whether an authority is satisfied or not, we first determine which keys have approved of a message, and
- * then determine whether that list of keys is sufficient to satisfy the authority. This class takes a list of keys and
- * provides the @ref satisfied method to determine whether that list of keys satisfies a provided authority.
- *
- * @tparam F A callable which takes a single argument of type @ref AccountPermission and returns the corresponding
- * authority
- */
-template<typename F>
-class AuthorityChecker {
-   F PermissionToAuthority;
-   flat_set<public_key_type> signingKeys;
-
-public:
-   AuthorityChecker(F PermissionToAuthority, const flat_set<public_key_type>& signingKeys)
-      : PermissionToAuthority(PermissionToAuthority), signingKeys(signingKeys) {}
-
-   bool satisfied(const types::AccountPermission& permission) const {
-      return satisfied(PermissionToAuthority(permission));
-   }
-   template<typename AuthorityType>
-   bool satisfied(const AuthorityType& authority) const {
-      UInt32 weight = 0;
-      for (const auto& kpw : authority.keys) {
-         if (signingKeys.count(kpw.key)) {
-            weight += kpw.weight;
-            if (weight >= authority.threshold)
-               return true;
-         }
-      }
-      for (const auto& apw : authority.accounts)
-//#warning TODO: Recursion limit? Yes: implement as producer-configurable parameter 
-         if (satisfied(apw.permission)) {
-            weight += apw.weight;
-            if (weight >= authority.threshold)
-               return true;
-         }
-      return false;
-   }
-};
-
-inline bool operator < ( const types::AccountPermission& a, const types::AccountPermission& b ) {
-   return std::tie( a.account, a.permission ) < std::tie( b.account, b.permission );
-}
-template<typename F>
-AuthorityChecker<F> MakeAuthorityChecker(F&& pta, const flat_set<public_key_type>& signingKeys) {
-   return AuthorityChecker<F>(std::forward<F>(pta), signingKeys);
+inline bool operator< (const types::AccountPermission& a, const types::AccountPermission& b) {
+   return std::tie(a.account, a.permission) < std::tie(b.account, b.permission);
 }
 
 /**
  * Makes sure all keys are unique and sorted and all account permissions are unique and sorted and that authority can
  * be satisfied
  */
-inline bool validate( types::Authority& auth ) {
+inline bool validate(const types::Authority& auth) {
    const types::KeyPermissionWeight* prev = nullptr;
    decltype(auth.threshold) totalWeight = 0;
 
diff --git a/libraries/chain/include/eos/chain/authority_checker.hpp b/libraries/chain/include/eos/chain/authority_checker.hpp
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..dca8b39a1d3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/libraries/chain/include/eos/chain/authority_checker.hpp
@@ -0,0 +1,127 @@
+#pragma once
+
+#include <eos/chain/types.hpp>
+#include <eos/types/generated.hpp>
+
+#include <eos/utilities/parallel_markers.hpp>
+
+#include <fc/scoped_exit.hpp>
+
+#include <boost/range/algorithm/find.hpp>
+#include <boost/algorithm/cxx11/all_of.hpp>
+
+namespace eos { namespace chain {
+
+namespace detail {
+using MetaPermission = static_variant<types::KeyPermissionWeight, types::AccountPermissionWeight>;
+
+struct GetWeightVisitor {
+   using result_type = UInt32;
+
+   template<typename Permission>
+   UInt32 operator()(const Permission& permission) { return permission.weight; }
+};
+
+// Orders permissions descending by weight, and breaks ties with Key permissions being less than Account permissions
+struct MetaPermissionComparator {
+   bool operator()(const MetaPermission& a, const MetaPermission& b) const {
+      GetWeightVisitor scale;
+      if (a.visit(scale) > b.visit(scale)) return true;
+      return a.contains<types::KeyPermissionWeight>() && !b.contains<types::KeyPermissionWeight>();
+   }
+};
+
+using MetaPermissionSet = boost::container::flat_multiset<MetaPermission, MetaPermissionComparator>;
+}
+
+/**
+ * @brief This class determines whether a set of signing keys are sufficient to satisfy an authority or not
+ *
+ * To determine whether an authority is satisfied or not, we first determine which keys have approved of a message, and
+ * then determine whether that list of keys is sufficient to satisfy the authority. This class takes a list of keys and
+ * provides the @ref satisfied method to determine whether that list of keys satisfies a provided authority.
+ *
+ * @tparam F A callable which takes a single argument of type @ref AccountPermission and returns the corresponding
+ * authority
+ */
+template<typename F>
+class AuthorityChecker {
+   F PermissionToAuthority;
+   vector<public_key_type> signingKeys;
+   vector<bool> usedKeys;
+
+   struct WeightTallyVisitor {
+      using result_type = UInt32;
+
+      AuthorityChecker& checker;
+      UInt32 totalWeight = 0;
+
+      WeightTallyVisitor(AuthorityChecker& checker)
+         : checker(checker) {}
+
+      UInt32 operator()(const types::KeyPermissionWeight& permission) {
+         auto itr = boost::find(checker.signingKeys, permission.key);
+         if (itr != checker.signingKeys.end()) {
+            checker.usedKeys[itr - checker.signingKeys.begin()] = true;
+            totalWeight += permission.weight;
+         }
+         return totalWeight;
+      }
+      UInt32 operator()(const types::AccountPermissionWeight& permission) {
+         //TODO: Recursion limit? Yes: implement as producer-configurable parameter
+         if (checker.satisfied(permission.permission))
+            totalWeight += permission.weight;
+         return totalWeight;
+      }
+   };
+
+public:
+   AuthorityChecker(F PermissionToAuthority, const flat_set<public_key_type>& signingKeys)
+      : PermissionToAuthority(PermissionToAuthority),
+        signingKeys(signingKeys.begin(), signingKeys.end()),
+        usedKeys(signingKeys.size(), false)
+   {}
+
+   bool satisfied(const types::AccountPermission& permission) {
+      return satisfied(PermissionToAuthority(permission));
+   }
+   template<typename AuthorityType>
+   bool satisfied(const AuthorityType& authority) {
+      // Save the current used keys; if we do not satisfy this authority, the newly used keys aren't actually used
+      auto KeyReverter = fc::make_scoped_exit([this, keys = usedKeys] () mutable {
+         usedKeys = keys;
+      });
+
+      // Sort key permissions and account permissions together into a single set of MetaPermissions
+      detail::MetaPermissionSet permissions;
+      permissions.insert(authority.keys.begin(), authority.keys.end());
+      permissions.insert(authority.accounts.begin(), authority.accounts.end());
+
+      // Check all permissions, from highest weight to lowest, seeing if signingKeys satisfies them or not
+      WeightTallyVisitor visitor(*this);
+      for (const auto& permission : permissions)
+         // If we've got enough weight, to satisfy the authority, return!
+         if (permission.visit(visitor) >= authority.threshold) {
+            KeyReverter.cancel();
+            return true;
+         }
+      return false;
+   }
+
+   bool all_keys_used() const { return boost::algorithm::all_of_equal(usedKeys, true); }
+   flat_set<public_key_type> used_keys() const {
+      auto range = utilities::FilterDataByMarker(signingKeys, usedKeys, true);
+      return {range.begin(), range.end()};
+   }
+   flat_set<public_key_type> unused_keys() const {
+      auto range = utilities::FilterDataByMarker(signingKeys, usedKeys, false);
+      return {range.begin(), range.end()};
+   }
+};
+
+template<typename F>
+AuthorityChecker<F> MakeAuthorityChecker(F&& pta, const flat_set<public_key_type>& signingKeys) {
+   return AuthorityChecker<F>(std::forward<F>(pta), signingKeys);
+}
+
+}} // namespace eos::chain
diff --git a/libraries/chain/message_handling_contexts.cpp b/libraries/chain/message_handling_contexts.cpp
index 098872c5cd7..9501b1e126b 100644
--- a/libraries/chain/message_handling_contexts.cpp
+++ b/libraries/chain/message_handling_contexts.cpp
@@ -4,11 +4,10 @@
 #include <eos/chain/key_value_object.hpp>
 #include <eos/chain/chain_controller.hpp>
 
+#include <eos/utilities/parallel_markers.hpp>
+
 #include <boost/algorithm/cxx11/all_of.hpp>
 #include <boost/range/algorithm/find_if.hpp>
-#include <boost/range/combine.hpp>
-#include <boost/range/adaptor/filtered.hpp>
-#include <boost/range/adaptor/transformed.hpp>
 
 namespace eos { namespace chain {
 
@@ -48,15 +47,7 @@ bool apply_context::all_authorizations_used() const {
 }
 
 vector<types::AccountPermission> apply_context::unused_authorizations() const {
-   auto RemoveUsed = boost::adaptors::filtered([](const auto& tuple) {
-      return !boost::get<0>(tuple);
-   });
-   auto ToPermission = boost::adaptors::transformed([](const auto& tuple) {
-      return boost::get<1>(tuple);
-   });
-
-   // zip the parallel arrays, filter out the used authorizations, and return just the permissions that are left
-   auto range = boost::combine(used_authorizations, msg.authorization) | RemoveUsed | ToPermission;
+   auto range = utilities::FilterDataByMarker(msg.authorization, used_authorizations, false);
    return {range.begin(), range.end()};
 }
 
diff --git a/libraries/fc/include/fc/scoped_exit.hpp b/libraries/fc/include/fc/scoped_exit.hpp
index 98ec16dfa5b..5890e9d310c 100644
--- a/libraries/fc/include/fc/scoped_exit.hpp
+++ b/libraries/fc/include/fc/scoped_exit.hpp
@@ -9,12 +9,15 @@ namespace fc {
          scoped_exit( C&& c ):callback( std::forward<C>(c) ){}
          scoped_exit( scoped_exit&& mv ):callback( std::move( mv.callback ) ){}
 
+         void cancel() { canceled = true; }
+
          ~scoped_exit() {
-            try { callback(); } catch( ... ) {}
+            if (!canceled)
+               try { callback(); } catch( ... ) {}
          }
 
          scoped_exit& operator = ( scoped_exit&& mv ) {
-            callback = std::move(mv);
+            callback = std::move(mv.callback);
             return *this;
          }
       private:
@@ -22,6 +25,7 @@ namespace fc {
          scoped_exit& operator=( const scoped_exit& );
 
          Callback callback;
+         bool canceled = false;
    };
 
    template<typename Callback>
diff --git a/libraries/utilities/include/eos/utilities/parallel_markers.hpp b/libraries/utilities/include/eos/utilities/parallel_markers.hpp
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..e59b5ba6708
--- /dev/null
+++ b/libraries/utilities/include/eos/utilities/parallel_markers.hpp
@@ -0,0 +1,39 @@
+#pragma once
+
+#include <boost/range/combine.hpp>
+#include <boost/range/adaptor/filtered.hpp>
+#include <boost/range/adaptor/transformed.hpp>
+
+namespace eos { namespace utilities {
+
+/**
+ * @brief Return values in DataRange corresponding to matching Markers
+ *
+ * Takes two parallel ranges, a Data range containing data values, and a Marker range containing markers on the
+ * corresponding data values. Returns a new Data range containing only the values corresponding to markers which match
+ * markerValue
+ *
+ * For example:
+ * @code{.cpp}
+ * vector<char> data = {'A', 'B', 'C'};
+ * vector<bool> markers = {true, false, true};
+ * auto markedData = FilterDataByMarker(data, markers, true);
+ * // markedData contains {'A', 'C'}
+ * @endcode
+ */
+template<typename DataRange, typename MarkerRange, typename Marker>
+DataRange FilterDataByMarker(DataRange data, MarkerRange markers, const Marker& markerValue) {
+   auto RemoveMismatchedMarkers = boost::adaptors::filtered([&markerValue](const auto& tuple) {
+      return boost::get<0>(tuple) == markerValue;
+   });
+   auto ToData = boost::adaptors::transformed([](const auto& tuple) {
+      return boost::get<1>(tuple);
+   });
+
+   // Zip the ranges together, filter out data with markers that don't match, and return the data without the markers
+   auto range = boost::combine(markers, data) | RemoveMismatchedMarkers | ToData;
+   return {range.begin(), range.end()};
+}
+
+}} // namespace eos::utilities
+
diff --git a/tests/common/database_fixture.cpp b/tests/common/database_fixture.cpp
index e04ae6f037d..a1e25be44f3 100644
--- a/tests/common/database_fixture.cpp
+++ b/tests/common/database_fixture.cpp
@@ -27,6 +27,7 @@
 
 #include <eos/chain/account_object.hpp>
 #include <eos/chain/producer_object.hpp>
+#include <eos/chain/authority_checker.hpp>
 
 #include <eos/utilities/tempdir.hpp>
 
@@ -37,6 +38,8 @@
 #include <fc/crypto/digest.hpp>
 #include <fc/smart_ref_impl.hpp>
 
+#include <boost/range/adaptor/map.hpp>
+
 #include <iostream>
 #include <iomanip>
 #include <sstream>
@@ -94,9 +97,15 @@ private_key_type testing_fixture::get_private_key(const public_key_type& public_
    return itr->second;
 }
 
+flat_set<public_key_type> testing_fixture::available_keys() const {
+   auto range = key_ring | boost::adaptors::map_keys;
+   return {range.begin(), range.end()};
+}
+
 testing_blockchain::testing_blockchain(chainbase::database& db, fork_database& fork_db, block_log& blocklog,
                                    chain_initializer_interface& initializer, testing_fixture& fixture)
    : chain_controller(db, fork_db, blocklog, initializer, native_contract::make_administrator()),
+     db(db),
      fixture(fixture) {}
 
 void testing_blockchain::produce_blocks(uint32_t count, uint32_t blocks_to_miss) {
@@ -157,6 +166,34 @@ types::PublicKey testing_blockchain::get_block_signing_key(const types::AccountN
    return get_database().get<producer_object, by_owner>(producerName).signing_key;
 }
 
+void testing_blockchain::sign_transaction(SignedTransaction& trx) {
+   auto GetAuthority = [this](const types::AccountPermission& permission) {
+      auto key = boost::make_tuple(permission.account, permission.permission);
+      return db.get<permission_object, by_owner>(key).auth;
+   };
+   auto checker = MakeAuthorityChecker(GetAuthority, fixture.available_keys());
+
+   for (const auto& message : trx.messages)
+      for (const auto& authorization : message.authorization)
+         if (!checker.satisfied(authorization))
+            elog("Attempting to automatically sign transaction, but testing_fixture doesn't have the keys!");
+
+   for (const auto& key : checker.used_keys())
+      // TODO: Use a real chain_id here
+      trx.sign(fixture.get_private_key(key), chain_id_type{});
+}
+
+ProcessedTransaction testing_blockchain::push_transaction(SignedTransaction trx, uint32_t skip_flags) {
+   if (skip_trx_sigs)
+      skip_flags |= chain_controller::skip_transaction_signatures;
+
+   if (auto_sign_trxs) {
+      sign_transaction(trx);
+   }
+
+   return chain_controller::push_transaction(trx, skip_flags);
+}
+
 void testing_network::connect_blockchain(testing_blockchain& new_database) {
    if (blockchains.count(&new_database))
       return;
diff --git a/tests/common/database_fixture.hpp b/tests/common/database_fixture.hpp
index b655700cd88..fd6d95603cb 100644
--- a/tests/common/database_fixture.hpp
+++ b/tests/common/database_fixture.hpp
@@ -119,6 +119,7 @@ class testing_fixture {
 
    void store_private_key(const private_key_type& key);
    private_key_type get_private_key(const public_key_type& public_key) const;
+   flat_set<public_key_type> available_keys() const;
 
 protected:
    std::vector<fc::temp_directory> anonymous_temp_dirs;
@@ -178,8 +179,27 @@ class testing_blockchain : public chain_controller {
    /// @brief Get the specified block producer's signing key
    PublicKey get_block_signing_key(const AccountName& producerName);
 
+   /// @brief Attempt to sign the provided transaction using the keys available to the testing_fixture
+   void sign_transaction(SignedTransaction& trx);
+
+   /// @brief Override push_transaction to apply testing policies
+   ProcessedTransaction push_transaction(SignedTransaction trx, uint32_t skip_flags = 0);
+
+   /// @brief Set whether testing_blockchain::push_transaction checks signatures by default
+   /// @param skip_sigs If true, push_transaction will skip signature checks; otherwise, no changes will be made
+   void set_skip_transaction_signature_checking(bool skip_sigs) {
+      skip_trx_sigs = skip_sigs;
+   }
+   /// @brief Set whether testing_blockchain::push_transaction attempts to sign transactions or not
+   void set_auto_sign_transactions(bool auto_sign) {
+      auto_sign_trxs = auto_sign;
+   }
+
 protected:
+   chainbase::database& db;
    testing_fixture& fixture;
+   bool skip_trx_sigs = true;
+   bool auto_sign_trxs = false;
 };
 
 using boost::signals2::scoped_connection;
diff --git a/tests/common/macro_support.hpp b/tests/common/macro_support.hpp
index ee9df2096c7..bfec2829676 100644
--- a/tests/common/macro_support.hpp
+++ b/tests/common/macro_support.hpp
@@ -51,7 +51,7 @@ inline std::vector<Name> sort_names( std::vector<Name>&& names ) {
                          "newaccount", types::newaccount{#creator, #name, owner, active, recovery, deposit}); \
       trx.expiration = chain.head_block_time() + 100; \
       trx.set_reference_block(chain.head_block_id()); \
-      chain.push_transaction(trx, chain_controller::skip_transaction_signatures); \
+      chain.push_transaction(trx); \
       BOOST_TEST_CHECKPOINT("Created account " << #name); \
    }
 #define MKACCT2(chain, name) \
@@ -83,7 +83,7 @@ inline std::vector<Name> sort_names( std::vector<Name>&& names ) {
                          "updateauth", types::updateauth{#account, authname, parentname, auth}); \
       trx.expiration = chain.head_block_time() + 100; \
       trx.set_reference_block(chain.head_block_id()); \
-      chain.push_transaction(trx, chain_controller::skip_transaction_signatures); \
+      chain.push_transaction(trx); \
       BOOST_TEST_CHECKPOINT("Set " << #account << "'s " << authname << " authority."); \
    }
 
@@ -96,7 +96,7 @@ inline std::vector<Name> sort_names( std::vector<Name>&& names ) {
                          "deleteauth", types::deleteauth{#account, authname}); \
       trx.expiration = chain.head_block_time() + 100; \
       trx.set_reference_block(chain.head_block_id()); \
-      chain.push_transaction(trx, chain_controller::skip_transaction_signatures); \
+      chain.push_transaction(trx); \
       BOOST_TEST_CHECKPOINT("Deleted " << #account << "'s " << authname << " authority."); \
    }
 
@@ -109,7 +109,7 @@ inline std::vector<Name> sort_names( std::vector<Name>&& names ) {
                          "linkauth", types::linkauth{#account, #codeacct, messagetype, authname}); \
       trx.expiration = chain.head_block_time() + 100; \
       trx.set_reference_block(chain.head_block_id()); \
-      chain.push_transaction(trx, chain_controller::skip_transaction_signatures); \
+      chain.push_transaction(trx); \
       BOOST_TEST_CHECKPOINT("Link " << #codeacct << "::" << messagetype << " to " << #account \
                             << "'s " << authname << " authority."); \
    }
@@ -124,7 +124,7 @@ inline std::vector<Name> sort_names( std::vector<Name>&& names ) {
                          "unlinkauth", types::unlinkauth{#account, #codeacct, messagetype}); \
       trx.expiration = chain.head_block_time() + 100; \
       trx.set_reference_block(chain.head_block_id()); \
-      chain.push_transaction(trx, chain_controller::skip_transaction_signatures); \
+      chain.push_transaction(trx); \
       BOOST_TEST_CHECKPOINT("Unlink " << #codeacct << "::" << messagetype << " from " << #account); \
    }
 #define LINKAUTH3(chain, account, codeacct) LINKAUTH5(chain, account, codeacct, "")
@@ -138,7 +138,7 @@ inline std::vector<Name> sort_names( std::vector<Name>&& names ) {
                          "transfer", types::transfer{#sender, #recipient, Amount.amount}); \
       trx.expiration = chain.head_block_time() + 100; \
       trx.set_reference_block(chain.head_block_id()); \
-      chain.push_transaction(trx, chain_controller::skip_transaction_signatures); \
+      chain.push_transaction(trx); \
       BOOST_TEST_CHECKPOINT("Transfered " << Amount << " from " << #sender << " to " << #recipient); \
    }
 #define XFER4(chain, sender, recipient, amount) XFER5(chain, sender, recipient, amount, "")
@@ -151,7 +151,7 @@ inline std::vector<Name> sort_names( std::vector<Name>&& names ) {
                         "lock", types::lock{#sender, #recipient, amount}); \
       trx.expiration = chain.head_block_time() + 100; \
       trx.set_reference_block(chain.head_block_id()); \
-      chain.push_transaction(trx, chain_controller::skip_transaction_signatures); \
+      chain.push_transaction(trx); \
       BOOST_TEST_CHECKPOINT("Staked " << amount << " to " << #recipient); \
    }
 #define STAKE3(chain, account, amount) STAKE4(chain, account, account, amount)
@@ -165,7 +165,7 @@ inline std::vector<Name> sort_names( std::vector<Name>&& names ) {
                          "unlock", types::unlock{#account, amount}); \
       trx.expiration = chain.head_block_time() + 100; \
       trx.set_reference_block(chain.head_block_id()); \
-      chain.push_transaction(trx, chain_controller::skip_transaction_signatures); \
+      chain.push_transaction(trx); \
       BOOST_TEST_CHECKPOINT("Begin unstake " << amount << " to " << #account); \
    }
 
@@ -177,7 +177,7 @@ inline std::vector<Name> sort_names( std::vector<Name>&& names ) {
                          "claim", types::claim{#account, amount}); \
       trx.expiration = chain.head_block_time() + 100; \
       trx.set_reference_block(chain.head_block_id()); \
-      chain.push_transaction(trx, chain_controller::skip_transaction_signatures); \
+      chain.push_transaction(trx); \
       BOOST_TEST_CHECKPOINT("Finish unstake " << amount << " to " << #account); \
    }
 
@@ -190,7 +190,7 @@ inline std::vector<Name> sort_names( std::vector<Name>&& names ) {
                          "setproducer", types::setproducer{#owner, key, cfg}); \
       trx.expiration = chain.head_block_time() + 100; \
       trx.set_reference_block(chain.head_block_id()); \
-      chain.push_transaction(trx, chain_controller::skip_transaction_signatures); \
+      chain.push_transaction(trx); \
       BOOST_TEST_CHECKPOINT("Create producer " << #owner); \
    }
 #define MKPDCR3(chain, owner, key) MKPDCR4(chain, owner, key, BlockchainConfiguration{});
@@ -207,7 +207,7 @@ inline std::vector<Name> sort_names( std::vector<Name>&& names ) {
                          "okproducer", types::okproducer{#voter, #producer, approved? 1 : 0}); \
       trx.expiration = chain.head_block_time() + 100; \
       trx.set_reference_block(chain.head_block_id()); \
-      chain.push_transaction(trx, chain_controller::skip_transaction_signatures); \
+      chain.push_transaction(trx); \
       BOOST_TEST_CHECKPOINT("Set producer approval from " << #voter << " for " << #producer << " to " << approved); \
    }
 
@@ -220,7 +220,7 @@ inline std::vector<Name> sort_names( std::vector<Name>&& names ) {
                          "setproducer", types::setproducer{owner, key, cfg}); \
       trx.expiration = chain.head_block_time() + 100; \
       trx.set_reference_block(chain.head_block_id()); \
-      chain.push_transaction(trx, chain_controller::skip_transaction_signatures); \
+      chain.push_transaction(trx); \
       BOOST_TEST_CHECKPOINT("Update producer " << owner); \
    }
 #define UPPDCR3(chain, owner, key) UPPDCR4(chain, owner, key, chain.get_producer(owner).configuration)
diff --git a/tests/tests/misc_tests.cpp b/tests/tests/misc_tests.cpp
index e197926d399..a3e5b6d458a 100644
--- a/tests/tests/misc_tests.cpp
+++ b/tests/tests/misc_tests.cpp
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 #include <eos/chain/BlockchainConfiguration.hpp>
-#include <eos/chain/authority.hpp>
+#include <eos/chain/authority_checker.hpp>
 
 #include <eos/utilities/key_conversion.hpp>
 #include <eos/utilities/rand.hpp>
@@ -88,13 +88,39 @@ BOOST_AUTO_TEST_CASE(authority_checker)
    Make_Key(c);
    auto& c = c_public_key;
 
-   auto GetNullAuthority = [](auto){return Authority();};
+   auto GetNullAuthority = [](auto){abort(); return Authority();};
 
    auto A = Complex_Authority(2, ((a,1))((b,1)),);
-   BOOST_CHECK(MakeAuthorityChecker(GetNullAuthority, {a, b}).satisfied(A));
-   BOOST_CHECK(MakeAuthorityChecker(GetNullAuthority, {a, b, c}).satisfied(A));
-   BOOST_CHECK(!MakeAuthorityChecker(GetNullAuthority, {a, c}).satisfied(A));
-   BOOST_CHECK(!MakeAuthorityChecker(GetNullAuthority, {b, c}).satisfied(A));
+   {
+      auto checker = MakeAuthorityChecker(GetNullAuthority, {a, b});
+      BOOST_CHECK(checker.satisfied(A));
+      BOOST_CHECK(checker.all_keys_used());
+      BOOST_CHECK_EQUAL(checker.used_keys().size(), 2);
+      BOOST_CHECK_EQUAL(checker.unused_keys().size(), 0);
+   }
+   {
+      auto checker = MakeAuthorityChecker(GetNullAuthority, {a, c});
+      BOOST_CHECK(!checker.satisfied(A));
+      BOOST_CHECK(!checker.all_keys_used());
+      BOOST_CHECK_EQUAL(checker.used_keys().size(), 0);
+      BOOST_CHECK_EQUAL(checker.unused_keys().size(), 2);
+   }
+   {
+      auto checker = MakeAuthorityChecker(GetNullAuthority, {a, b, c});
+      BOOST_CHECK(checker.satisfied(A));
+      BOOST_CHECK(!checker.all_keys_used());
+      BOOST_CHECK_EQUAL(checker.used_keys().size(), 2);
+      BOOST_CHECK_EQUAL(checker.used_keys().count(a), 1);
+      BOOST_CHECK_EQUAL(checker.used_keys().count(b), 1);
+      BOOST_CHECK_EQUAL(checker.unused_keys().size(), 1);
+      BOOST_CHECK_EQUAL(checker.unused_keys().count(c), 1);
+   }
+   {
+      auto checker = MakeAuthorityChecker(GetNullAuthority, {b, c});
+      BOOST_CHECK(!checker.satisfied(A));
+      BOOST_CHECK(!checker.all_keys_used());
+      BOOST_CHECK_EQUAL(checker.used_keys().size(), 0);
+   }
 
    A = Complex_Authority(3, ((a,1))((b,1))((c,1)),);
    BOOST_CHECK(MakeAuthorityChecker(GetNullAuthority, {c, b, a}).satisfied(A));
@@ -115,10 +141,44 @@ BOOST_AUTO_TEST_CASE(authority_checker)
    auto GetCAuthority = [c_public_key](auto){return Complex_Authority(1, ((c, 1)),);};
 
    A = Complex_Authority(2, ((a, 2))((b, 1)), (("hello", "world", 1)));
-   BOOST_CHECK(MakeAuthorityChecker(GetCAuthority, {a}).satisfied(A));
-   BOOST_CHECK(!MakeAuthorityChecker(GetCAuthority, {b}).satisfied(A));
-   BOOST_CHECK(!MakeAuthorityChecker(GetCAuthority, {c}).satisfied(A));
-   BOOST_CHECK(MakeAuthorityChecker(GetCAuthority, {b,c}).satisfied(A));
+   {
+      auto checker = MakeAuthorityChecker(GetCAuthority, {a});
+      BOOST_CHECK(checker.satisfied(A));
+      BOOST_CHECK(checker.all_keys_used());
+   }
+   {
+      auto checker = MakeAuthorityChecker(GetCAuthority, {b});
+      BOOST_CHECK(!checker.satisfied(A));
+      BOOST_CHECK_EQUAL(checker.used_keys().size(), 0);
+      BOOST_CHECK_EQUAL(checker.unused_keys().size(), 1);
+      BOOST_CHECK_EQUAL(checker.unused_keys().count(b), 1);
+   }
+   {
+      auto checker = MakeAuthorityChecker(GetCAuthority, {c});
+      BOOST_CHECK(!checker.satisfied(A));
+      BOOST_CHECK_EQUAL(checker.used_keys().size(), 0);
+      BOOST_CHECK_EQUAL(checker.unused_keys().size(), 1);
+      BOOST_CHECK_EQUAL(checker.unused_keys().count(c), 1);
+   }
+   {
+      auto checker = MakeAuthorityChecker(GetCAuthority, {b,c});
+      BOOST_CHECK(checker.satisfied(A));
+      BOOST_CHECK(checker.all_keys_used());
+      BOOST_CHECK_EQUAL(checker.used_keys().size(), 2);
+      BOOST_CHECK_EQUAL(checker.unused_keys().size(), 0);
+      BOOST_CHECK_EQUAL(checker.used_keys().count(b), 1);
+      BOOST_CHECK_EQUAL(checker.used_keys().count(c), 1);
+   }
+   {
+      auto checker = MakeAuthorityChecker(GetCAuthority, {b,c,a});
+      BOOST_CHECK(checker.satisfied(A));
+      BOOST_CHECK(!checker.all_keys_used());
+      BOOST_CHECK_EQUAL(checker.used_keys().size(), 1);
+      BOOST_CHECK_EQUAL(checker.used_keys().count(a), 1);
+      BOOST_CHECK_EQUAL(checker.unused_keys().size(), 2);
+      BOOST_CHECK_EQUAL(checker.unused_keys().count(b), 1);
+      BOOST_CHECK_EQUAL(checker.unused_keys().count(c), 1);
+   }
 
    A = Complex_Authority(2, ((a, 1))((b, 1)), (("hello", "world", 1)));
    BOOST_CHECK(!MakeAuthorityChecker(GetCAuthority, {a}).satisfied(A));
@@ -127,12 +187,60 @@ BOOST_AUTO_TEST_CASE(authority_checker)
    BOOST_CHECK(MakeAuthorityChecker(GetCAuthority, {a,b}).satisfied(A));
    BOOST_CHECK(MakeAuthorityChecker(GetCAuthority, {b,c}).satisfied(A));
    BOOST_CHECK(MakeAuthorityChecker(GetCAuthority, {a,c}).satisfied(A));
+   {
+      auto checker = MakeAuthorityChecker(GetCAuthority, {a,b,c});
+      BOOST_CHECK(checker.satisfied(A));
+      BOOST_CHECK(!checker.all_keys_used());
+      BOOST_CHECK_EQUAL(checker.used_keys().size(), 2);
+      BOOST_CHECK_EQUAL(checker.unused_keys().size(), 1);
+      BOOST_CHECK_EQUAL(checker.unused_keys().count(c), 1);
+   }
 
    A = Complex_Authority(2, ((a, 1))((b, 1)), (("hello", "world", 2)));
    BOOST_CHECK(MakeAuthorityChecker(GetCAuthority, {a,b}).satisfied(A));
    BOOST_CHECK(MakeAuthorityChecker(GetCAuthority, {c}).satisfied(A));
    BOOST_CHECK(!MakeAuthorityChecker(GetCAuthority, {a}).satisfied(A));
    BOOST_CHECK(!MakeAuthorityChecker(GetCAuthority, {b}).satisfied(A));
+   {
+      auto checker = MakeAuthorityChecker(GetCAuthority, {a,b,c});
+      BOOST_CHECK(checker.satisfied(A));
+      BOOST_CHECK(!checker.all_keys_used());
+      BOOST_CHECK_EQUAL(checker.used_keys().size(), 1);
+      BOOST_CHECK_EQUAL(checker.unused_keys().size(), 2);
+      BOOST_CHECK_EQUAL(checker.used_keys().count(c), 1);
+   }
+
+   Make_Key(d);
+   auto& d = d_public_key;
+   Make_Key(e);
+   auto& e = e_public_key;
+
+   auto GetAuthority = [d_public_key, e] (const types::AccountPermission& perm) {
+      if (perm.account == "top")
+         return Complex_Authority(2, ((d, 1)), (("bottom", "bottom", 1)));
+      return Key_Authority(e);
+   };
+
+   A = Complex_Authority(5, ((a, 2))((b, 2))((c, 2)), (("top", "top", 5)));
+   {
+      auto checker = MakeAuthorityChecker(GetAuthority, {a,b,c,d,e});
+      BOOST_CHECK(checker.satisfied(A));
+      BOOST_CHECK(!checker.all_keys_used());
+      BOOST_CHECK_EQUAL(checker.used_keys().size(), 2);
+      BOOST_CHECK_EQUAL(checker.unused_keys().size(), 3);
+      BOOST_CHECK_EQUAL(checker.used_keys().count(d), 1);
+      BOOST_CHECK_EQUAL(checker.used_keys().count(e), 1);
+   }
+   {
+      auto checker = MakeAuthorityChecker(GetAuthority, {a,b,c,e});
+      BOOST_CHECK(checker.satisfied(A));
+      BOOST_CHECK(!checker.all_keys_used());
+      BOOST_CHECK_EQUAL(checker.used_keys().size(), 3);
+      BOOST_CHECK_EQUAL(checker.unused_keys().size(), 1);
+      BOOST_CHECK_EQUAL(checker.used_keys().count(a), 1);
+      BOOST_CHECK_EQUAL(checker.used_keys().count(b), 1);
+      BOOST_CHECK_EQUAL(checker.used_keys().count(c), 1);
+   }
 } FC_LOG_AND_RETHROW() }
 
 /// Test creating the wallet
diff --git a/tests/tests/native_contract_tests.cpp b/tests/tests/native_contract_tests.cpp
index 4ccf99f080a..fda3b9585d4 100644
--- a/tests/tests/native_contract_tests.cpp
+++ b/tests/tests/native_contract_tests.cpp
@@ -5,6 +5,7 @@
 #include <eos/chain/permission_object.hpp>
 #include <eos/chain/permission_link_object.hpp>
 #include <eos/chain/key_value_object.hpp>
+#include <eos/chain/authority_checker.hpp>
 
 #include <eos/native_contract/producer_objects.hpp>
 
@@ -33,6 +34,7 @@ BOOST_FIXTURE_TEST_CASE(create_account, testing_fixture)
       BOOST_CHECK_EQUAL(chain.get_liquid_balance("inita"), Asset(100000));
 
       Make_Account(chain, joe, inita, Asset(1000));
+      chain.produce_blocks();
       Transfer_Asset(chain, inita, joe, Asset(1000));
 
       { // test in the pending state