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third_and_fourth_generation.html
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<!DOCTYPE html>
<html lang="en">
<head>
<meta charset="UTF-8">
<!-- "X-UA-Compatible" and "IE=edge" optimises webpage display if user has older version of Internet Explorer (Ref_0001, Ref0002) -->
<meta http-equiv="X-UA-Compatible" content="IE=edge">
<meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0">
<title>Third and Fourth Generation</title>
<link rel="stylesheet" href="assets/css/style.css">
<!-- Link for Google font Roboto: -->
<link rel="preconnect" href="https://fonts.gstatic.com">
<link href="https://fonts.googleapis.com/css2?family=Roboto:wght@400&display=swap" rel="stylesheet">
<!-- Link for Google font Open Sans: -->
<link rel="preconnect" href="https://fonts.gstatic.com">
<link href="https://fonts.googleapis.com/css2?family=Open+Sans:wght@400&display=swap" rel="stylesheet">
</head>
<body>
<header>
<!--Page header:-->
<!--Navigation links to pages on this site: -->
<div>
<nav>
<ul class="nav-menu">
<li class="bulletless"><a href="index.html" class="button" target="_self">Home</a></li>
<li class="bulletless"><a href="pre_and_first_generation.html" class="button" target="_self">Pre and First Generation</a></li>
<li class="bulletless"><a href="second_generation.html" class="button" target="_self">Second Generation</a></li>
<li class="bulletless"><a href="third_and_fourth_generation.html" class="button" target="_self">Third and Fourth Generation</a></li>
<li class="bulletless"><a href="user_survey_form.html" class="button" target="_self">User Survey Form</a></li>
</ul>
</nav>
</div>
<section id="section-three">
<h1 class="page_heading">The History of the Silicon Based Desktop Computer</h1>
</section>
</header>
<main>
<section id="section-four">
<div>
<!-- Reference Comment: center iframe https://stackoverflow.com/questions/8366957/how-to-center-an-iframe-horizontally#8366972 -->
<!-- Reference Comment: used answer by pedro https://stackoverflow.com/users/5564463/pedro -->
<p class="video-to-center">
<!-- Reference Comment: iframe element taken by selecting SHARE > embed > on https://www.youtube-nocookie.com/embed/WnNm_uJYWhA?start=3 -->
<!-- Reference Comment: method of using iframe embedding taken from https://www.bitdegree.org/learn/how-to-embed-a-youtube-video -->
<iframe width="560" height="315" src="https://www.youtube-nocookie.com/embed/oIiqVrKDtLc?start=363" title="Extreme ultraviolet lithography" frameborder="0" allow="accelerometer; autoplay; clipboard-write; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture" allowfullscreen></iframe>
</p>
</div>
</section>
<section id="section-five">
<!-- Credit Comment: Content from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_computing_hardware_(1960s%E2%80%93present)#Third_generation -->
<!-- This section has combined vertical timeline and 2 columns -->
<!-- Note inside vertical timeline is 2 columns reference -->
<!-- vertical timeline https://freefrontend.com/css-timelines/
https://codepen.io/mathiesjanssen/pen/ggeBKm-->
<div class="container">
<!-- Section Heading: "Prior to First Generation and First Generation" -->
<div class="header">
<h1>Third Generation and Fourth Generation</h1>
</div>
<!-- subheading: "Prior to First Generation" -->
<!-- From Section Heading-->
<div class="subheader">
<h2>Third Generation (1965-1971)</h2>
</div>
<!-- 2 columns https://www.w3schools.com/howto/howto_css_two_columns.asp -->
<!-- start row "Jack Kilby Texas Instruments hybrid integrated circuit (hybrid IC) 1958" -->
<div class="row">
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<section>
<ul><!-- Add unordered list containing element -->
<li class="bulletless"><!-- Add list item and class column so that this goes on the left -->
<span class="bullet-to-text-spacing-left"><!-- for bullet point to text spacing control https://stackoverflow.com/questions/4373046/css-control-space-between-bullet-and-li-->
<h3><!-- add h3 per https://codepen.io/mathiesjanssen/pen/ggeBKm-->
hybrid integrated circuit
</h3>
<!-- If needed put line break(s) here -->
<p>
hybrid integrated circuit (hybrid IC)
</p><!--Updated Comment: line breaks above replaced with comment indicating line break placeholder. Original comment: This line (was break break paragraph open and close) fixes bug whereby right column was line breaking instead of left. Bug was caused by line break coming further down further out from center of nested code block. If line break comes lower down, further out from center of nested code, (after next closing div tag or after next closing list item tag, it does not work as expected. -->
<p>
made of germanium
</p><!--Updated Comment: line breaks above replaced with comment indicating line break placeholder. Original comment: This line (was break break paragraph open and close) fixes bug whereby right column was line breaking instead of left. Bug was caused by line break coming further down further out from center of nested code block. If line break comes lower down, further out from center of nested code, (after next closing div tag or after next closing list item tag, it does not work as expected. -->
<p>
had external wire connections, making it difficult to mass-produce
</p><!--Updated Comment: line breaks above replaced with comment indicating line break placeholder. Original comment: This line (was break break paragraph open and close) fixes bug whereby right column was line breaking instead of left. Bug was caused by line break coming further down further out from center of nested code block. If line break comes lower down, further out from center of nested code, (after next closing div tag or after next closing list item tag, it does not work as expected. -->
</span>
</li>
</ul><!-- Closing tag for ul containing left column of vertical timeline -->
</section>
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<div class="column right">
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<div class="item"><!-- works -->
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<span class="bullet-to-text-spacing-right"><!-- for bullet point to text spacing control https://stackoverflow.com/questions/4373046/css-control-space-between-bullet-and-li-->
<h3>
1958
</h3>
<!-- If needed put line break(s) here -->
<p>
Jack Kilby
</p>
</span>
</li><!-- Add class bulletless2 to remove bullet point -->
</ul><!-- Close unordered list containing element -->
</section>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end vertical timeline -->
</div>
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</div>
<!-- -end- row "Jack Kilby Texas Instruments hybrid integrated circuit (hybrid IC) 1958" -->
<!-- 2 columns https://www.w3schools.com/howto/howto_css_two_columns.asp -->
<!-- start row "early 1959" -->
<div class="row">
<!-- left column -->
<div class="column left"> <!-- new-->
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<div class="item-for-left"><!-- works --><!-- .item-from-left added from right column -->
<div><!--add to match right col-->
<section>
<ul><!-- Add unordered list containing element -->
<li class="bulletless"><!-- Add list item and class column so that this goes on the left -->
<span class="bullet-to-text-spacing-left"><!-- for bullet point to text spacing control https://stackoverflow.com/questions/4373046/css-control-space-between-bullet-and-li-->
<h3><!-- add h3 per https://codepen.io/mathiesjanssen/pen/ggeBKm-->
Fairchild's planar process
</h3>
<!-- If needed put line break(s) here -->
<p>
The basis for Noyce's monolithic IC was Fairchild's planar process, which allowed integrated circuits to be laid out using the same principles as those of printed circuits.
</p><!--Updated Comment: line breaks above replaced with comment indicating line break placeholder. Original comment: This line (was break break paragraph open and close) fixes bug whereby right column was line breaking instead of left. Bug was caused by line break coming further down further out from center of nested code block. If line break comes lower down, further out from center of nested code, (after next closing div tag or after next closing list item tag, it does not work as expected. -->
<p>
The planar process was developed by Noyce's colleague Jean Hoerni in early 1959, based on the silicon surface passivation and thermal oxidation processes developed by Mohamed M. Atalla at Bell Labs in the late 1950s.
</p><!--Updated Comment: line breaks above replaced with comment indicating line break placeholder. Original comment: This line (was break break paragraph open and close) fixes bug whereby right column was line breaking instead of left. Bug was caused by line break coming further down further out from center of nested code block. If line break comes lower down, further out from center of nested code, (after next closing div tag or after next closing list item tag, it does not work as expected. -->
</span>
</li>
</ul><!-- Closing tag for ul containing left column of vertical timeline -->
</section>
</div><!--add to match right col closing tag-->
</div><!-- .item-for-left added from .item closing tag on right column -->
<!-- column 1 above closing -->
</div><!-- .column-left closing tag :Updated Comment Original Comment: new closing tag-->
<!-- right column -->
<div class="column right">
<!-- column 2 of 2 https://www.w3schools.com/howto/howto_css_two_columns.asp -->
<div class="item"><!-- works -->
<div><!-- keeps separate timepoints under each other -->
<section>
<ul><!-- Add unordered list containing element -->
<li>
<span class="bullet-to-text-spacing-right"><!-- for bullet point to text spacing control https://stackoverflow.com/questions/4373046/css-control-space-between-bullet-and-li-->
<h3>
early 1959
</h3>
<!-- If needed put line break(s) here -->
<p>
Robert Noyce's colleague Jean Hoerni
</p>
</span>
</li><!-- Add class bulletless2 to remove bullet point -->
</ul><!-- Close unordered list containing element -->
</section>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end vertical timeline -->
</div>
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</div>
<!-- -end- row "early 1959" -->
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<!-- start row "Robert Noyce Fairchild Semiconductor monolithic integrated circuit (IC) silicon chip 1959" -->
<div class="row">
<!-- left column -->
<div class="column left"> <!-- new-->
<!-- column 1 of 2 here -->
<div class="item-for-left"><!-- works --><!-- .item-from-left added from right column -->
<div><!--add to match right col-->
<section>
<ul><!-- Add unordered list containing element -->
<li class="bulletless"><!-- Add list item and class column so that this goes on the left -->
<span class="bullet-to-text-spacing-left"><!-- for bullet point to text spacing control https://stackoverflow.com/questions/4373046/css-control-space-between-bullet-and-li-->
<h3><!-- add h3 per https://codepen.io/mathiesjanssen/pen/ggeBKm-->
monolithic integrated circuit (IC) silicon chip
</h3>
<!-- If needed put line break(s) here -->
<p>
In 1959, Robert Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor invented the monolithic integrated circuit (IC) chip. It was made of silicon, whereas Kilby's chip was made of germanium.
</p><!--Updated Comment: line breaks above replaced with comment indicating line break placeholder. Original comment: This line (was break break paragraph open and close) fixes bug whereby right column was line breaking instead of left. Bug was caused by line break coming further down further out from center of nested code block. If line break comes lower down, further out from center of nested code, (after next closing div tag or after next closing list item tag, it does not work as expected. -->
<p>
This basis for Noyce's monolithic IC was Fairchild's planar process, which allowed integrated circuits to be laid out using the same principles as those of printed circuits.
</p><!--Updated Comment: line breaks above replaced with comment indicating line break placeholder. Original comment: This line (was break break paragraph open and close) fixes bug whereby right column was line breaking instead of left. Bug was caused by line break coming further down further out from center of nested code block. If line break comes lower down, further out from center of nested code, (after next closing div tag or after next closing list item tag, it does not work as expected. -->
</span>
</li>
</ul><!-- Closing tag for ul containing left column of vertical timeline -->
</section>
</div><!--add to match right col closing tag-->
</div><!-- .item-for-left added from .item closing tag on right column -->
<!-- column 1 above closing -->
</div><!-- .column-left closing tag :Updated Comment Original Comment: new closing tag-->
<!-- right column -->
<div class="column right">
<!-- column 2 of 2 https://www.w3schools.com/howto/howto_css_two_columns.asp -->
<div class="item"><!-- works -->
<div><!-- keeps separate timepoints under each other -->
<section>
<ul><!-- Add unordered list containing element -->
<li>
<span class="bullet-to-text-spacing-right"><!-- for bullet point to text spacing control https://stackoverflow.com/questions/4373046/css-control-space-between-bullet-and-li-->
<h3>
1959
</h3>
<!-- If needed put line break(s) here -->
<p>
Robert Noyce
</p>
</span>
</li><!-- Add class bulletless2 to remove bullet point -->
</ul><!-- Close unordered list containing element -->
</section>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end vertical timeline -->
</div>
<!-- close 2 columns: -->
<!-- row div closing tag: -->
</div>
<!-- -end- row "Robert Noyce Fairchild Semiconductor monolithic integrated circuit (IC) silicon chip 1959" -->
<!-- 2 columns https://www.w3schools.com/howto/howto_css_two_columns.asp -->
<!-- start row "commercial IC 1965" -->
<div class="row">
<!-- left column -->
<div class="column left"> <!-- new-->
<!-- column 1 of 2 here -->
<div class="item-for-left"><!-- works --><!-- .item-from-left added from right column -->
<div><!--add to match right col-->
<section>
<ul><!-- Add unordered list containing element -->
<li class="bulletless"><!-- Add list item and class column so that this goes on the left -->
<span class="bullet-to-text-spacing-left"><!-- for bullet point to text spacing control https://stackoverflow.com/questions/4373046/css-control-space-between-bullet-and-li-->
<h3><!-- add h3 per https://codepen.io/mathiesjanssen/pen/ggeBKm-->
IC early commercial use
</h3>
<!-- If needed put line break(s) here -->
<p>
An early commercial use of integrated circuits (ICs) was the 1965 SDS 92
</p><!--Updated Comment: line breaks above replaced with comment indicating line break placeholder. Original comment: This line (was break break paragraph open and close) fixes bug whereby right column was line breaking instead of left. Bug was caused by line break coming further down further out from center of nested code block. If line break comes lower down, further out from center of nested code, (after next closing div tag or after next closing list item tag, it does not work as expected. -->
</span>
</li>
</ul><!-- Closing tag for ul containing left column of vertical timeline -->
</section>
</div><!--add to match right col closing tag-->
</div><!-- .item-for-left added from .item closing tag on right column -->
<!-- column 1 above closing -->
</div><!-- .column-left closing tag :Updated Comment Original Comment: new closing tag-->
<!-- right column -->
<div class="column right">
<!-- column 2 of 2 https://www.w3schools.com/howto/howto_css_two_columns.asp -->
<div class="item"><!-- works -->
<div><!-- keeps separate timepoints under each other -->
<section>
<ul><!-- Add unordered list containing element -->
<li>
<span class="bullet-to-text-spacing-right"><!-- for bullet point to text spacing control https://stackoverflow.com/questions/4373046/css-control-space-between-bullet-and-li-->
<h3>
1965
</h3>
<!-- If needed put line break(s) here -->
<p>
</p>
</span>
</li><!-- Add class bulletless2 to remove bullet point -->
</ul><!-- Close unordered list containing element -->
</section>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end vertical timeline -->
</div>
<!-- close 2 columns: -->
<!-- row -->
</div>
<!-- -end- row "commercial IC 1965" -->
<!-- 2 columns https://www.w3schools.com/howto/howto_css_two_columns.asp -->
<!-- start row "sub-1000 transistor integrated circuit technology 1966" -->
<div class="row">
<!-- left column -->
<div class="column left"> <!-- new-->
<!-- column 1 of 2 here -->
<div class="item-for-left"><!-- works --><!-- .item-from-left added from right column -->
<div><!--add to match right col-->
<section>
<ul><!-- Add unordered list containing element -->
<li class="bulletless"><!-- Add list item and class column so that this goes on the left -->
<span class="bullet-to-text-spacing-left"><!-- for bullet point to text spacing control https://stackoverflow.com/questions/4373046/css-control-space-between-bullet-and-li-->
<h3><!-- add h3 per https://codepen.io/mathiesjanssen/pen/ggeBKm-->
integrated circuit
</h3>
<!-- If needed put line break(s) here -->
<p>
sub-1000 transistor integrated circuit technology 1966
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</span>
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<div class="column right">
<!-- column 2 of 2 https://www.w3schools.com/howto/howto_css_two_columns.asp -->
<div class="item"><!-- works -->
<div><!-- keeps separate timepoints under each other -->
<section>
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<li>
<span class="bullet-to-text-spacing-right"><!-- for bullet point to text spacing control https://stackoverflow.com/questions/4373046/css-control-space-between-bullet-and-li-->
<h3>
1966
</h3>
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<p>
</p>
</span>
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<!-- -end- row "sub-1000 transistor integrated circuit technology 1966" -->
<!-- 2 columns https://www.w3schools.com/howto/howto_css_two_columns.asp -->
<!-- start row "Hewlett-Packard 2116A minicomputer November 1966" -->
<div class="row">
<!-- left column -->
<div class="column left"> <!-- new-->
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<div class="item-for-left"><!-- works --><!-- .item-from-left added from right column -->
<div><!--add to match right col-->
<section>
<ul><!-- Add unordered list containing element -->
<li class="bulletless"><!-- Add list item and class column so that this goes on the left -->
<span class="bullet-to-text-spacing-left"><!-- for bullet point to text spacing control https://stackoverflow.com/questions/4373046/css-control-space-between-bullet-and-li-->
<h3><!-- add h3 per https://codepen.io/mathiesjanssen/pen/ggeBKm-->
HP 2116A one of first 16 bit computers
</h3>
<!-- If needed put line break(s) here -->
<p>
In November 1966, Hewlett-Packard introduced the 2116A minicomputer, one of the first commercial 16-bit computers. It used CTµL (Complementary Transistor MicroLogic) in integrated circuits from Fairchild Semiconductor.
</p><!--Updated Comment: line breaks above replaced with comment indicating line break placeholder. Original comment: This line (was break break paragraph open and close) fixes bug whereby right column was line breaking instead of left. Bug was caused by line break coming further down further out from center of nested code block. If line break comes lower down, further out from center of nested code, (after next closing div tag or after next closing list item tag, it does not work as expected. -->
</span>
</li>
</ul><!-- Closing tag for ul containing left column of vertical timeline -->
</section>
</div><!--add to match right col closing tag-->
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</div><!-- .column-left closing tag :Updated Comment Original Comment: new closing tag-->
<!-- right column -->
<div class="column right">
<!-- column 2 of 2 https://www.w3schools.com/howto/howto_css_two_columns.asp -->
<div class="item"><!-- works -->
<div><!-- keeps separate timepoints under each other -->
<section>
<ul><!-- Add unordered list containing element -->
<li>
<span class="bullet-to-text-spacing-right"><!-- for bullet point to text spacing control https://stackoverflow.com/questions/4373046/css-control-space-between-bullet-and-li-->
<h3>
November 1966
</h3>
<!-- If needed put line break(s) here -->
<p>
Hewlett-Packard
</p>
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<!-- 2 columns https://www.w3schools.com/howto/howto_css_two_columns.asp -->
<!-- start row "Hewlett-Packard 2115A computer 1967" -->
<div class="row">
<!-- left column -->
<div class="column left"> <!-- new-->
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<div class="item-for-left"><!-- works --><!-- .item-from-left added from right column -->
<div><!--add to match right col-->
<section>
<ul><!-- Add unordered list containing element -->
<li class="bulletless"><!-- Add list item and class column so that this goes on the left -->
<span class="bullet-to-text-spacing-left"><!-- for bullet point to text spacing control https://stackoverflow.com/questions/4373046/css-control-space-between-bullet-and-li-->
<h3><!-- add h3 per https://codepen.io/mathiesjanssen/pen/ggeBKm-->
HP 2115A 16 bit computer
</h3>
<!-- If needed put line break(s) here -->
<p>
Hewlett-Packard followed the 2116A with similar 16-bit computers, such as the 2115A in 1967
</p><!--Updated Comment: line breaks above replaced with comment indicating line break placeholder. Original comment: This line (was break break paragraph open and close) fixes bug whereby right column was line breaking instead of left. Bug was caused by line break coming further down further out from center of nested code block. If line break comes lower down, further out from center of nested code, (after next closing div tag or after next closing list item tag, it does not work as expected. -->
</span>
</li>
</ul><!-- Closing tag for ul containing left column of vertical timeline -->
</section>
</div><!--add to match right col closing tag-->
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</div><!-- .column-left closing tag :Updated Comment Original Comment: new closing tag-->
<!-- right column -->
<div class="column right">
<!-- column 2 of 2 https://www.w3schools.com/howto/howto_css_two_columns.asp -->
<div class="item"><!-- works -->
<div><!-- keeps separate timepoints under each other -->
<section>
<ul><!-- Add unordered list containing element -->
<li>
<span class="bullet-to-text-spacing-right"><!-- for bullet point to text spacing control https://stackoverflow.com/questions/4373046/css-control-space-between-bullet-and-li-->
<h3>
1967
</h3>
<!-- If needed put line break(s) here -->
<p>
Hewlett-Packard
</p>
</span>
</li><!-- Add class bulletless2 to remove bullet point -->
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<!-- -end- row "Hewlett-Packard 2115A computer 1967" -->
<!-- 2 columns https://www.w3schools.com/howto/howto_css_two_columns.asp -->
<!-- start row "Hewlett-Packard 2114A computer 1968" -->
<div class="row">
<!-- left column -->
<div class="column left"> <!-- new-->
<!-- column 1 of 2 here -->
<div class="item-for-left"><!-- works --><!-- .item-from-left added from right column -->
<div><!--add to match right col-->
<section>
<ul><!-- Add unordered list containing element -->
<li class="bulletless"><!-- Add list item and class column so that this goes on the left -->
<span class="bullet-to-text-spacing-left"><!-- for bullet point to text spacing control https://stackoverflow.com/questions/4373046/css-control-space-between-bullet-and-li-->
<h3><!-- add h3 per https://codepen.io/mathiesjanssen/pen/ggeBKm-->
HP 2114A 16 bit computer
</h3>
<!-- If needed put line break(s) here -->
<p>
Hewlett-Packard followed this with similar 16-bit computers, such as the 2115A in 1967, the 2114A in 1968, and others.
</p><!--Updated Comment: line breaks above replaced with comment indicating line break placeholder. Original comment: This line (was break break paragraph open and close) fixes bug whereby right column was line breaking instead of left. Bug was caused by line break coming further down further out from center of nested code block. If line break comes lower down, further out from center of nested code, (after next closing div tag or after next closing list item tag, it does not work as expected. -->
</span>
</li>
</ul><!-- Closing tag for ul containing left column of vertical timeline -->
</section>
</div><!--add to match right col closing tag-->
</div><!-- .item-for-left added from .item closing tag on right column -->
<!-- column 1 above closing -->
</div><!-- .column-left closing tag :Updated Comment Original Comment: new closing tag-->
<!-- right column -->
<div class="column right">
<!-- column 2 of 2 https://www.w3schools.com/howto/howto_css_two_columns.asp -->
<div class="item"><!-- works -->
<div><!-- keeps separate timepoints under each other -->
<section>
<ul><!-- Add unordered list containing element -->
<li>
<span class="bullet-to-text-spacing-right"><!-- for bullet point to text spacing control https://stackoverflow.com/questions/4373046/css-control-space-between-bullet-and-li-->
<h3>
1968
</h3>
<!-- If needed put line break(s) here -->
<p>
Hewlett-Packard
</p>
</span>
</li><!-- Add class bulletless2 to remove bullet point -->
</ul><!-- Close unordered list containing element -->
</section>
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</div>
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</div>
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</div>
<!-- -end- row "Hewlett-Packard 2114A computer 1968" -->
<!-- 2 columns https://www.w3schools.com/howto/howto_css_two_columns.asp -->
<!-- start row "Data General Nova 1969" -->
<div class="row">
<!-- left column -->
<div class="column left"> <!-- new-->
<!-- column 1 of 2 here -->
<div class="item-for-left"><!-- works --><!-- .item-from-left added from right column -->
<div><!--add to match right col-->
<section>
<ul><!-- Add unordered list containing element -->
<li class="bulletless"><!-- Add list item and class column so that this goes on the left -->
<span class="bullet-to-text-spacing-left"><!-- for bullet point to text spacing control https://stackoverflow.com/questions/4373046/css-control-space-between-bullet-and-li-->
<h3><!-- add h3 per https://codepen.io/mathiesjanssen/pen/ggeBKm-->
Nova $8,000 computer
</h3>
<!-- If needed put line break(s) here -->
<p>
- In 1969, Data General introduced the Nova and shipped a total of 50,000 at $8,000 each.
</p><!--Updated Comment: line breaks above replaced with comment indicating line break placeholder. Original comment: This line (was break break paragraph open and close) fixes bug whereby right column was line breaking instead of left. Bug was caused by line break coming further down further out from center of nested code block. If line break comes lower down, further out from center of nested code, (after next closing div tag or after next closing list item tag, it does not work as expected. -->
<p>
- The popularity of 16-bit computers, such as the Hewlett-Packard 21xx series and the Data General Nova, led the way toward word lengths that were multiples of the 8-bit byte. The Nova was first to employ medium-scale integration (MSI) circuits from Fairchild Semiconductor, with subsequent models using large-scale integrated (LSI) circuits. Also notable was that the entire central processor was contained on one 15-inch printed circuit board.
</p><!--Updated Comment: line breaks above replaced with comment indicating line break placeholder. Original comment: This line (was break break paragraph open and close) fixes bug whereby right column was line breaking instead of left. Bug was caused by line break coming further down further out from center of nested code block. If line break comes lower down, further out from center of nested code, (after next closing div tag or after next closing list item tag, it does not work as expected. -->
</span>
</li>
</ul><!-- Closing tag for ul containing left column of vertical timeline -->
</section>
</div><!--add to match right col closing tag-->
</div><!-- .item-for-left added from .item closing tag on right column -->
<!-- column 1 above closing -->
</div><!-- .column-left closing tag :Updated Comment Original Comment: new closing tag-->
<!-- right column -->
<div class="column right">
<!-- column 2 of 2 https://www.w3schools.com/howto/howto_css_two_columns.asp -->
<div class="item"><!-- works -->
<div><!-- keeps separate timepoints under each other -->
<section>
<ul><!-- Add unordered list containing element -->
<li>
<span class="bullet-to-text-spacing-right"><!-- for bullet point to text spacing control https://stackoverflow.com/questions/4373046/css-control-space-between-bullet-and-li-->
<h3>
1969
</h3>
<!-- If needed put line break(s) here -->
<p>
Data General
</p>
</span>
</li><!-- Add class bulletless2 to remove bullet point -->
</ul><!-- Close unordered list containing element -->
</section>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end vertical timeline -->
</div>
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</div>
<!-- -end- row "Data General Nova 1969" -->
<!-- 2 columns https://www.w3schools.com/howto/howto_css_two_columns.asp -->
<!-- start row "IBM IC 1969" -->
<div class="row">
<!-- left column -->
<div class="column left"> <!-- new-->
<!-- column 1 of 2 here -->
<div class="item-for-left"><!-- works --><!-- .item-from-left added from right column -->
<div><!--add to match right col-->
<section>
<ul><!-- Add unordered list containing element -->
<li class="bulletless"><!-- Add list item and class column so that this goes on the left -->
<span class="bullet-to-text-spacing-left"><!-- for bullet point to text spacing control https://stackoverflow.com/questions/4373046/css-control-space-between-bullet-and-li-->
<h3><!-- add h3 per https://codepen.io/mathiesjanssen/pen/ggeBKm-->
IBM IC computers
</h3>
<!-- If needed put line break(s) here -->
<p>
IBM first used ICs in computers for the logic of the System/360 Model 85 shipped in 1969
</p><!--Updated Comment: line breaks above replaced with comment indicating line break placeholder. Original comment: This line (was break break paragraph open and close) fixes bug whereby right column was line breaking instead of left. Bug was caused by line break coming further down further out from center of nested code block. If line break comes lower down, further out from center of nested code, (after next closing div tag or after next closing list item tag, it does not work as expected. -->
</span>
</li>
</ul><!-- Closing tag for ul containing left column of vertical timeline -->
</section>
</div><!--add to match right col closing tag-->
</div><!-- .item-for-left added from .item closing tag on right column -->
<!-- column 1 above closing -->
</div><!-- .column-left closing tag :Updated Comment Original Comment: new closing tag-->
<!-- right column -->
<div class="column right">
<!-- column 2 of 2 https://www.w3schools.com/howto/howto_css_two_columns.asp -->
<div class="item"><!-- works -->
<div><!-- keeps separate timepoints under each other -->
<section>
<ul><!-- Add unordered list containing element -->
<li>
<span class="bullet-to-text-spacing-right"><!-- for bullet point to text spacing control https://stackoverflow.com/questions/4373046/css-control-space-between-bullet-and-li-->
<h3>
1969
</h3>
<!-- If needed put line break(s) here -->
<p>
IBM
</p>
</span>
</li><!-- Add class bulletless2 to remove bullet point -->
</ul><!-- Close unordered list containing element -->
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<!-- -end- row "IBM IC 1969" -->
<!-- 2 columns https://www.w3schools.com/howto/howto_css_two_columns.asp -->
<!-- start row "IBM extensive ICs 1971" -->
<div class="row">
<!-- left column -->
<div class="column left"> <!-- new-->
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<div class="item-for-left"><!-- works --><!-- .item-from-left added from right column -->
<div><!--add to match right col-->
<section>
<ul><!-- Add unordered list containing element -->
<li class="bulletless"><!-- Add list item and class column so that this goes on the left -->
<span class="bullet-to-text-spacing-left"><!-- for bullet point to text spacing control https://stackoverflow.com/questions/4373046/css-control-space-between-bullet-and-li-->
<h3><!-- add h3 per https://codepen.io/mathiesjanssen/pen/ggeBKm-->
extensive ICs
</h3>
<!-- If needed put line break(s) here -->
<p>
IBM made extensive use of ICs in its System/370 which began shipment in 1971
</p><!--Updated Comment: line breaks above replaced with comment indicating line break placeholder. Original comment: This line (was break break paragraph open and close) fixes bug whereby right column was line breaking instead of left. Bug was caused by line break coming further down further out from center of nested code block. If line break comes lower down, further out from center of nested code, (after next closing div tag or after next closing list item tag, it does not work as expected. -->
</span>
</li>
</ul><!-- Closing tag for ul containing left column of vertical timeline -->
</section>
</div><!--add to match right col closing tag-->
</div><!-- .item-for-left added from .item closing tag on right column -->
<!-- column 1 above closing -->
</div><!-- .column-left closing tag :Updated Comment Original Comment: new closing tag-->
<!-- right column -->
<div class="column right">
<!-- column 2 of 2 https://www.w3schools.com/howto/howto_css_two_columns.asp -->
<div class="item"><!-- works -->
<div><!-- keeps separate timepoints under each other -->
<section>
<ul><!-- Add unordered list containing element -->
<li>
<span class="bullet-to-text-spacing-right"><!-- for bullet point to text spacing control https://stackoverflow.com/questions/4373046/css-control-space-between-bullet-and-li-->
<h3>
1971
</h3>
<!-- If needed put line break(s) here -->
<p>
IBM
</p>
</span>
</li><!-- Add class bulletless2 to remove bullet point -->
</ul><!-- Close unordered list containing element -->
</section>
</div>
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<!-- -end- row "IBM extensive ICs 1971" -->
<!-- 2 columns https://www.w3schools.com/howto/howto_css_two_columns.asp -->
<!-- start row "The integrated circuit 1960s and 1970s" -->
<div class="row">
<!-- left column -->
<div class="column left"> <!-- new-->
<!-- column 1 of 2 here -->
<div class="item-for-left"><!-- works --><!-- .item-from-left added from right column -->
<div><!--add to match right col-->
<section>
<ul><!-- Add unordered list containing element -->
<li class="bulletless"><!-- Add list item and class column so that this goes on the left -->
<span class="bullet-to-text-spacing-left"><!-- for bullet point to text spacing control https://stackoverflow.com/questions/4373046/css-control-space-between-bullet-and-li-->
<h3><!-- add h3 per https://codepen.io/mathiesjanssen/pen/ggeBKm-->
The integrated circuit
</h3>
<!-- If needed put line break(s) here -->
<p>
- The integrated circuit enabled the development of much smaller computers. The minicomputer was a significant innovation in the 1960s and 1970s.
</p><!--Updated Comment: line breaks above replaced with comment indicating line break placeholder. Original comment: This line (was break break paragraph open and close) fixes bug whereby right column was line breaking instead of left. Bug was caused by line break coming further down further out from center of nested code block. If line break comes lower down, further out from center of nested code, (after next closing div tag or after next closing list item tag, it does not work as expected. -->
<p>
- It brought computing power to more people, not only through more convenient physical size but also through broadening the computer vendor field.
</p><!--Updated Comment: line breaks above replaced with comment indicating line break placeholder. Original comment: This line (was break break paragraph open and close) fixes bug whereby right column was line breaking instead of left. Bug was caused by line break coming further down further out from center of nested code block. If line break comes lower down, further out from center of nested code, (after next closing div tag or after next closing list item tag, it does not work as expected. -->
<p>
- Digital Equipment Corporation became the number two computer company behind IBM with their popular PDP and VAX computer systems.
</p><!--Updated Comment: line breaks above replaced with comment indicating line break placeholder. Original comment: This line (was break break paragraph open and close) fixes bug whereby right column was line breaking instead of left. Bug was caused by line break coming further down further out from center of nested code block. If line break comes lower down, further out from center of nested code, (after next closing div tag or after next closing list item tag, it does not work as expected. -->
<p>
- Smaller, affordable hardware also brought about the development of important new operating systems such as Unix.
</p><!--Updated Comment: line breaks above replaced with comment indicating line break placeholder. Original comment: This line (was break break paragraph open and close) fixes bug whereby right column was line breaking instead of left. Bug was caused by line break coming further down further out from center of nested code block. If line break comes lower down, further out from center of nested code, (after next closing div tag or after next closing list item tag, it does not work as expected. -->
</span>
</li>
</ul><!-- Closing tag for ul containing left column of vertical timeline -->
</section>
</div><!--add to match right col closing tag-->
</div><!-- .item-for-left added from .item closing tag on right column -->
<!-- column 1 above closing -->
</div><!-- .column-left closing tag :Updated Comment Original Comment: new closing tag-->
<!-- right column -->
<div class="column right">
<!-- column 2 of 2 https://www.w3schools.com/howto/howto_css_two_columns.asp -->
<div class="item"><!-- works -->
<div><!-- keeps separate timepoints under each other -->
<section>
<ul><!-- Add unordered list containing element -->
<li>
<span class="bullet-to-text-spacing-right"><!-- for bullet point to text spacing control https://stackoverflow.com/questions/4373046/css-control-space-between-bullet-and-li-->
<h3>
1960s and 1970s
</h3>
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<p>
</p>
</span>
</li><!-- Add class bulletless2 to remove bullet point -->
</ul><!-- Close unordered list containing element -->
</section>
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</div>
<!-- -end- row "The integrated circuit 1960s and 1970s" -->
<!-- subheading: "Fourth Generation (1971-1980)" -->
<!-- From Section Heading-->
<div class="subheader">
<h2>Fourth Generation (1971-1980 and onwards to present)</h2>
</div>
<!-- start row "microprocessor" -->
<div class="row">
<!-- left column -->
<div class="column left"> <!-- new-->
<!-- column 1 of 2 here -->
<div class="item-for-left"><!-- works --><!-- .item-from-left added from right column -->
<div><!--add to match right col-->
<section>
<ul><!-- Add unordered list containing element -->
<li class="bulletless"><!-- Add list item and class column so that this goes on the left -->
<span class="bullet-to-text-spacing-left"><!-- for bullet point to text spacing control https://stackoverflow.com/questions/4373046/css-control-space-between-bullet-and-li-->
<h3><!-- add h3 per https://codepen.io/mathiesjanssen/pen/ggeBKm-->
microprocessor
</h3>
<!-- If needed put line break(s) here -->
<p>
- Third generation minicomputers were essentially scaled-down versions of mainframe computers, whereas the fourth generation's origins are fundamentally different.<br><br>
</p><!--Updated Comment: line breaks above replaced with comment indicating line break placeholder. Original comment: This line (was break break paragraph open and close) fixes bug whereby right column was line breaking instead of left. Bug was caused by line break coming further down further out from center of nested code block. If line break comes lower down, further out from center of nested code, (after next closing div tag or after next closing list item tag, it does not work as expected. -->
<p>
- The basis of the fourth generation is the microprocessor, a computer processor contained on a single large-scale integration (LSI) MOS integrated circuit chip.<br><br>
</p><!--Updated Comment: line breaks above replaced with comment indicating line break placeholder. Original comment: This line (was break break paragraph open and close) fixes bug whereby right column was line breaking instead of left. Bug was caused by line break coming further down further out from center of nested code block. If line break comes lower down, further out from center of nested code, (after next closing div tag or after next closing list item tag, it does not work as expected. -->
<p>
- Microprocessor-based computers were originally very limited in their computational ability and speed and were in no way an attempt to downsize the minicomputer. They were addressing an entirely different market.<br><br>
</p><!--Updated Comment: line breaks above replaced with comment indicating line break placeholder. Original comment: This line (was break break paragraph open and close) fixes bug whereby right column was line breaking instead of left. Bug was caused by line break coming further down further out from center of nested code block. If line break comes lower down, further out from center of nested code, (after next closing div tag or after next closing list item tag, it does not work as expected. -->
<p>
- Processing power and storage capacities have grown beyond all recognition since the 1970s, but the underlying technology has remained basically the same of large-scale integration (LSI) or very-large-scale integration (VLSI) microchips, so it is widely regarded that most of today's computers still belong to the fourth generation.<br><br>
</p><!--Updated Comment: line breaks above replaced with comment indicating line break placeholder. Original comment: This line (was break break paragraph open and close) fixes bug whereby right column was line breaking instead of left. Bug was caused by line break coming further down further out from center of nested code block. If line break comes lower down, further out from center of nested code, (after next closing div tag or after next closing list item tag, it does not work as expected. -->
</span>
</li>
</ul><!-- Closing tag for ul containing left column of vertical timeline -->
</section>
</div><!--add to match right col closing tag-->
</div><!-- .item-for-left added from .item closing tag on right column -->
<!-- column 1 above closing -->
</div><!-- .column-left closing tag :Updated Comment Original Comment: new closing tag-->
<!-- right column -->
<div class="column right">
<!-- column 2 of 2 https://www.w3schools.com/howto/howto_css_two_columns.asp -->
<div class="item"><!-- works -->
<div><!-- keeps separate timepoints under each other -->
<section>
<ul><!-- Add unordered list containing element -->
<li>
<span class="bullet-to-text-spacing-right"><!-- for bullet point to text spacing control https://stackoverflow.com/questions/4373046/css-control-space-between-bullet-and-li-->
<h3>
1971 onwards
</h3>
<!-- If needed put line break(s) here -->
<p>
</p>
</span>
</li><!-- Add class bulletless2 to remove bullet point -->
</ul><!-- Close unordered list containing element -->
</section>
</div>
</div>
<!-- end vertical timeline -->
</div>
<!-- close 2 columns: -->
<!-- row -->
</div>
<!-- -end- row "microprocessor" -->
<!-- start row "EUV Extreme ultraviolet lithography" -->
<div class="row">
<!-- left column -->
<div class="column left"> <!-- new-->
<!-- column 1 of 2 here -->
<div class="item-for-left"><!-- works --><!-- .item-from-left added from right column -->
<div><!--add to match right col-->
<section>
<ul><!-- Add unordered list containing element -->
<li class="bulletless"><!-- Add list item and class column so that this goes on the left -->
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EUV
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- Extreme ultraviolet lithography (also known as EUV or EUVL) is a lithography (mainly chip printing/making aka "fabricating") technology using a range of extreme ultraviolet (EUV) wavelengths, roughly spanning a 2% FWHM bandwidth about 13.5 nm.<br><br>
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- While EUV technology is available for mass production, 53 machines worldwide capable of producing wafers using the technique were delivered during 2018 and 2019, while 201 immersion lithography systems were delivered during the same period.<br><br>
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- Issues that make EUV adoption difficult are tool costs (ASML's EUV scanners can cost up to US$120 Million), tool uptime and stochastic phenomena.<br><br>
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- The latest NXE:3400 tools have been equipped with lower pupil fill capability for better imaging, but this leads to lower productivity due to limited use of the exposure field.<br><br>
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- Several fundamental issues still remain.<br><br>
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2018-2021
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<br>ASML <br><br>As of 2020, Samsung and TSMC are the only companies who have used EUV in production, mainly targeting 5nm.<br><br>In June 2021, Intel Corp. Chief Executive Officer Pat Gelsinger predicted the shortage of semiconductors that's hurting industries from automotive to consumer electronics will bottom out in the second half of this year before starting to improve.<br><br><br><a href="https://www.msn.com/en-us/finance/other/intel-ceo-says-chip-shortage-to-hit-bottom-in-second-half/ar-AALrWGd" alt="semiconductor shortage" target="_blank">Click here to read more on how this is affecting supply of desktop computers and other technologies.</a>
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